However there might be a better explanation. In Old English the word was spelt ‘butterfloege’ and in Old Dutch and German it was ‘botervleig’ and ‘butterfliege’ respectively. These terms all translate as ‘butter fly’. 

Another German name ‘milchdieb’ means ‘milk-thief’ and may refer to the habit that butterflies once had of being attracted to buttermilk. In eastern Europe where ancient farming methods have not died out, butterflies are still sometimes attracted to buttermilk being hand-churned in farmyards.

Brimstone butterfly – the original “butter-coloured fly” ? – Adrian Hoskins

Elsewhere in the world, butterflies are known by other names. In Spain and Latin America they are called mariposas. In Portugal they are borbolettas. To the French they are papillons. In Russia they are babochka and in Armenia teeternig.

My favourites however are the Romanian flutturi ( because butterflies are fluttery! ), and the Nigerian olookolombooka ( oh look – a lombooka! ).

How can you tell a butterfly from a moth ?

All butterflies and moths belong to the order Lepidoptera. This is split into 34 superfamilies, each with particular characteristics. 95% of the species in these superfamilies are nocturnal insects, and are commonly called moths.

Positioned ( in evolutionary and systematic terms ) somewhere in the middle of all these moths are two particular superfamilies – the Hesperioidea and Papilionoidea. The Hesperioidea comprises of a single family Hesperiidae. Its members are called Skippers, and are generally thought of as being butterflies. The Papilionoidea comprises of 6 families. Five of these – the Papilionidae, Lycaenidae, Riodinidae, Pieridae and Nymphalidae have always been regarded as butterflies. In 2011 scientists decided as a result of molecular analysis that members of the moth family Hedylidae had more in common with the traditional butterfly families than with other moths.

Consequently the Hedylidae were transferred to the Papilionoidea, and are now regarded as butterflies! In terms of systematics the Papilionoidea are positioned between the moth superfamilies Geometroidea and Drepanoidea.”Moths” are usually thought of as being drab in colour and nocturnal in habit, but there are plenty of very colourful day-flying moths, e.g. Urania moths ( Uraniidae ), Burnets ( Zygaenidae ) and Tiger moths ( Arctiidae ).

Conversely while it’s true that the great majority of butterflies are colourful sun loving creatures, many tropical species such as Opsiphanes Owlet butterflies and Melanitis Evening Browns are dull in colour and only fly between dusk and dawn.

It is often incorrectly stated that all butterflies have clubbed antennae, thereby distinguishing them from moths, which in most cases have tapered or pectinate antennae. It’s true that butterflies in the families Papilionidae, Lycaenidae, Riodinidae, Nymphalidae and Pieridae have antennae with a club or swelling at the tip, but so do moths in the families Zygaenidae, Castniidae and Sematuridae.

The nocturnal Hedylidae are anatomically somewhere between butterflies and moths, with sombre wings and thin tapered antennae.

The antennae of most butterflies have a swollen or clubbed tip. – Adrian Hoskins

The antennae of skippers ( Hesperioidea ), such as Erynnis tages have hooked tips, as do those of moths from the families Zygaenidae, Sematuridae and Castniidae – Adrian Hoskins

A pair of day-flying moths from Peru : Urania leilus, which could easily be mistaken for a swallowtail butterfly; and the pretty yellow and black Xanthiris flaveolata – Adrian Hoskins

Most moths have narrow tapered antennae, but the males of Saturniidae have feathery plumes that are used to detect and home in on female pheromones – Emily Halsey

The fore and hind-wings of all moths are physically linked in flight by a wing-coupling bristle known as a frenulum. This is absent from the wings of butterflies, with the exception of a single Australian species the Regent Skipper Euschemon rafflesia, which has a frenulum in males but not in females.

Members of the moth family Hedylidae are considered to be living ancestors of modern butterflies, as they have a remarkable number of common characteristics.

How do scientists describe and name new species ?

When someone thinks they have discovered a ‘new’ species, they have to send a sample specimen to a taxonomist for analysis. By examining the structure of the wings, legs and antennae the family and subfamily can quickly be determined. Next, examination of the layout of the wing veins makes it possible to ascertain whether the insect belongs to an existing genus. If the venation is unique, a new genus has to be invented as a “container” for the species.

Sometimes a new species is so closely related to a known species, that the only way to distinguish them is by dissecting and comparing their genitalia. Other methods are also employed, including microscopic examination of wing scales, and DNA analysis.

If the butterfly does turn out to be a new species, the taxonomist then creates a Latinised name for it, and publishes the description and name in a recognised scientific journal.

The origin of scientific names varies enormously. Some species are named after Greek gods, some get their name from the place where the butterfly was discovered, or are named in honour of some eminent entomologist. It is considered unethical for people to name a species after themselves, but there is at least one instance where someone got away with it – a scarab beetle named Cartwrightia cartwrighti CARTWRIGHT.

Names are often descriptive of the caterpillar’s foodplant : the Orange tip Anthocharis cardamines gets its name from the plant garlic mustard Cardamines pratensis. Equally often names refer to the colour or pattern of the butterfly – the Clouded Yellow’s species name crocea means “deep yellow”, while the Eyed Hawkmoth’s name S. ocellatus means “eye” and refers to the eye-like markings on the moth’s hindwings.

The Charismatic Metalmark

Taxonomists are not usually renowned for having a great sense of humour, but amongst their more hilarious moments they have managed to provide us with a few amusing scientific names. Hence we have a metalmark from Colombia, named by Hall and Harvey in 2002 as Charis matic ! It has since been renamed rather less attractively as Detritivora matic. The new genus name refers to the fact that the caterpillars feed on decaying leaves and other detritus on the forest floor.

The World’s dullest Skipper ?

Sometimes it can be difficult to think up names for some of the more mundane looking species, particularly for the hundreds of near-identical dull brown skipper species found in the neotropics. In 1997 the taxonomist Austin was apparently so unimpressed with his latest discovery that he gave a ‘new<‘ Mexican species the unfortunate name Inglorius mediocris, which needs little translation !

Below is it’s official scientific description :

See the Taxonomy pages to read more about classification, or click here for a further selection of fascinating scientific names.

How long do butterflies & moths live ?

It varies considerably according to species. The average lifespan of an adult butterfly is about 2 weeks, but some species ( e.g. Heliconius erato and Taygetis mermeria from South America, and Gonepteryx rhamni from Europe ) can live for at least 11 months.

The whole lifecycle from egg to adult takes about 3 weeks to complete in many tropical species. In temperate regions however there are usually only 1 or 2 generations a year, while in the sub-arctic tundra several species take 2 full years to complete their lifecycles.

The longest-lived species of all is a moth by the name of Gynaephora groenlandica, which lives on Ellesmere Island in the Canadian arctic. The adult moth, a member of the family Lymantriidae, lives for only a few days, but it has been estimated ( Kukal & Kevan, 1987 ) that its caterpillar, known as the Arctic Woolly Bear, takes an amazing 14 years to reach full growth – although later research by Morewood & Ring suggests that the lifecycle can sometimes be completed in only 7 years.

Either way Gynaephora groenlandica and it’s close relatives rossi, ginghaiensis, relictus, selenitica menhuanensis are almost certainly the longest-lived species of Lepidoptera on Earth. Temperatures in their Arctic habitats can drop as low as minus 60� C, forcing the caterpillars to spend 10 or 11 months in hibernation, frozen solid.

Only for a few short weeks in June and July is it warm enough for them to defrost, allowing them to feed and grow. In their final year they pupate in a thin silk cocoon. The adult moths emerge a few days later, find mates, lay their eggs and die.

How many butterfly species are there in the world ?

A study in 1968 concluded that the 920,000 species of insect then known to exist accounted for 85% of all known animal species on Earth. The insects already known at that time included no less than 300,000 species of Coleoptera ( beetles ), 90,000 Diptera ( flies ), 108,000 Hymenoptera ( bees, wasps and ants ), and 113,000 Lepidoptera ( butterflies & moths ).Since then the number of known butterflies and moths has increased dramatically.

This is partly because vast areas of formerly inaccessible rainforest have now been surveyed, and new species discovered. Another reason is that advances in taxonomy, phylogenetics and cladistics have led to many taxa that were formerly considered to be subspecies, being “elevated” to full species status.

In “Butterflies of Mexico & USA” ( Scott, 1992 ) a census estimated that there were approx 14750 butterfly species ( including skippers ) worldwide. In 2007 Hoskins collated data from a number of sources and produced a World Butterfly Census which enumerates 17657 currently known species.

The true total will never be known, as many species will become extinct before they are discovered, but is likely to be in the region of 18,000 – 21,000 species.

Why are butterflies so diverse in the tropics ?

There are several contributing factors. Firstly there are a great many more biological and climatic niches to be occupied in the tropics. In Peru for example, where there are more butterfly species than anywhere else on Earth, there are deserts, paramo grasslands, rainforests and cloudforests. Each of these habitats contains many sub-habitats, each with its own fauna, e.g. a rainforest will have an entirely different range of species in the canopy, sub-canopy and understorey.

Secondly, during ice ages, it is only the tropical and sub-tropical regions which are able to support butterflies, so these become refugiae into which species from elsewhere contract.

The butterflies that normally live in temperate regions either become extinct or migrate and survive on remote mountains in the tropics where conditions are suitable for them. When the Earth warms up again, and temperate regions once again become habitable by butterflies, they are recolonised slowly, either by species that return from the tropical mountains, or by tropical lowland species which are able to adapt to the new conditions. Temperate butterflies are therefore comprised of a small proportion of species that re-emerge from the tropics.

Thirdly, the climate, and the evergreen nature of the foliage in the tropical lowlands, enables many more generations to breed each year – perhaps as many as 8 generations for some species, compared with just one or two in temperate regions. This, according to the Theory of Evolution provides many more opportunities for new forms to arise.

How do you tell a male from a female butterfly ?

In many species there are obvious visual differences. The Polyommatinae for example usually have bright blue males, but the females are darker and often have orange lunules around the margins.

Common Blue Polyommatus icarus male	Common Blue Polyommatus icarus female

The males of many species have dark streaks of androconia ( pheromone producing scales ) on their forewings, as with Argynnis paphia and Ochlodes sylvanus:

Silver-washed Fritillary Argynnis paphia male	Silver-washed Fritillary Argynnis paphia female
Large Skipper Ochlodes sylvanus male	Large Skipper Ochlodes sylvanus female

The differences in other species may be more subtle – males generally have more angular wings, longer thinner bodies, brighter colours, and stronger patterns than females of the same species. There are usually obvious differences in behaviour as well – males tend to actively patrol their habitats, or to establish a small territory which they defend against other butterflies.

Females by comparison are far more sedentary, and in the early part of their flight period tend to stay in areas where both adult and larval food sources are present.

What is the most widespread butterfly in the world ?

There are several very widespread species including the Monarch Danaus plexippus, the Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus, the Long-tailed Blue Lampides boeticus, and the Small White Pieris rapae, all of which are found on at least 3 continents.

The Painted Lady Vanessa cardui however is the most widely distributed butterfly in the world, found in North America from Alaska to Mexico, and south to the Caribbean islands and Venezuela. In the Old World it occurs throughout Europe and temperate Asia, over most of Africa, Madagascar, the Azores, the Canary Islands, the Arab states, and across to the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.

In the Far East it occurs in Thailand, Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra – and extends it’s range south through the Indonesian islands to Western Australia. The New Zealand Painted Lady Vanessa kershawi is also regarded by some taxonomists to be a sub-species of cardui.

Painted Lady Vanessa cardui – Adrian Hoskins

The cosmopolitan distribution of the Painted Lady is caused by a combination of it’s very strong migratory behaviour and polyphagous nature – in Britain its caterpillars feed almost exclusively on thistles, but elsewhere they utilise a vast range of foodplants amongst the Compositae, Malvaceae, Boraginaceae, Hydrophyllaceea, Ulmaceae, Rutaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Labiatae, Plantaginaceae, Leguminosae, Urticaceae, Verbenaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Cruciferae, Umbelliferae,  Rosaceae, Rhamnaceae, and even one or two grasses!

Which is the largest butterfly in the world ?

The female of the Alexandra Birdwing Ornithoptera alexandrae, found in Papua New Guinea has a wingspan of about 30cms ( 12″ ).  The largest butterflies in South America are the Owl butterfly Caligo idomeneus ( 14cms ), and Morpho helena, the iridescent blue male reaching 13cms, and the orange and brown female 15cms. In Africa the largest species is Druryeia antimachus at 17cms.

Alexandra’s Birdwing Ornithoptera alexandrae, Papua New Guinea

….and the smallest ?

At the opposite extreme are the tiny Lycaenids Itylus titicaca from Bolivia and Chilades miniscula from Madagascar. The tiniest of them all however is a dull brown Lycaenid Micropsyche ariana, found only in Afghanistan, which measures just 8mm across the wings.

….and the largest moth ?

The largest moth in the world, in terms of wingspan ( measured across forewing at widest point ) is the White Witch Thysania agrippina from South America, which measures as much as 32cms across the wings. It is generally accepted however that the title of largest moth should go to the Giant Atlas moth Attacus atlas. The latter has a slightly smaller wingspan at 30cms, but a greater surface area. 

The Giant Atlas moth is a common species across much of tropical Asia.

Giant Atlas moth Attacus atlas, West Malaysia – Gan Cheong Weei

Why are tropical butterflies and moths so big ?

Insects are cold blooded, so in cooler climates caterpillars grow slowly and are only able to produce one or two generations of small or medium sized butterflies or moths per year.

In hot climates they can feed almost continually and grow much more rapidly, so tropical species have been able to evolve to produce much larger caterpillars, resulting in larger adults.

There are limits to the maximum size a species can attain however. The limitations of the insect respiratory system make larger bodies less efficient. Consequently large butterflies and moths tend to react and fly more slowly than their smaller counterparts, and are easy prey for birds.

Note also that not all tropical Lepidoptera are large – there are many very small species. These are the result of an alternative strategy whereby many species produce several generations of small insects per year, rather than a single generation of large ones.

Which country has the most butterfly species ?

Peru has over 3,700 butterfly species – more than any other country and equal to about 20% of the world total. The butterflies of Peru however are still vastly under-recorded, and it is estimated that as many as 4,200 will eventually be discovered.

The highest known concentration of species is at Pakitza, an area of about 4000 hectares within Manu national park. Over 1,300 species have so far been recorded at Pakitza.

The great diversity and abundance of butterflies in Peru is partly due to the extraordinary range of climatic conditions and vast diversity of habitats. Together these create a vast array of ecological niches in which species can exist and evolve.

Not far behind Peru are Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador, each of which have about 3,200 species. In all of Central and South America there are about 7,500 species, compared to about 3,600 for the whole of Africa.

There are several reasons for this. Many Nymphalids including Hamadryas, Prepona, Panacea and the Red Admiral Vanessa atalanta habitually bask high up on tree trunks, with wings outspread, and head downwards. They often appear to be observing the activity below them, and males certainly use these high vantage points to watch out for females flying below them in the forest. An additional advantage of adopting this position is that sunlight hits the wings more squarely, allowing the butterflies to warm themselves more quickly.

Another reason is linked to aerodynamics. Studies have demonstrated that butterflies get greater ‘lift’ if they take off from a head-downwards position. The hibernating Comma pictured below has chosen a small branch just a few inches above the ground as it’s over-wintering site. The butterflies probably make use of the heat reflected up from the leaf litter, and in conjunction with the more efficient head-downwards take-off, can become airborne more easily on the cold but sunny days of late winter and early spring.

Comma Polygonia c-album, hibernating openly under a low branch – Adrian Hoskins

Tropical Riodinids such as Eurybia habitually rest beneath low growing foliage, and probably make use of the same factors to enable them to take flight very rapidly, to intercept potential mates.

Eurybia species, probably molochina, Madre de Dios, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

Where do butterflies go when it rains ?

Most species shelter under leaves when it rains. They can often detect the approach of wet or windy weather several hours before it’s arrival ( by sensing changes in humidity and air pressure ), and take shelter well in advance of rainfall. I’ve observed this many times especially in the neotropics when Cattlehearts, Sisters and many other species suddenly disappear under leaves even when the sun is shining. You can be sure however that when they do so things are on the change. Clouds quickly roll in, and an hour later it’s pelting down. There is a short account of my observation of similar behaviour by Gonepteryx rhamni in England, on the Brimstone page.

Gonepteryx rhamni roosts under leaves at night or in wet weather – Adrian Hoskins

Not all butterflies shelter under leaves though. Some such as Peacocks hide in rabbit burrows, while Commas go into log piles or hollow tree trunks, and Orange tips just sit it out on the surface of a leaf or on a flower head. Blues, browns and most skippers rest openly on grasses in dry weather, but the threat of rain sends them deep into grass tussocks for shelter.

Dingy Skippers stay out in the open even during prolonged spells of bad weather – in May 2006, I studied one particular female Dingy Skipper which spent no less than 13 days sitting on the top of a knapweed plant, with it’s wings wrapped tightly around a dead flower head. It endured heavy rain, hail, sleet and strong winds during this period, with no opportunity to feed. The butterfly is superbly camouflaged when resting on knapweed seed-heads, where it is overlooked by insectivorous birds. By roosting high on the seed-head, it is also able to escape predation by rodents, which might more easily locate an insect that chose to hide amongst grasses at ground level.

Dingy Skipper, female at roost, Selborne, Hampshire. During prolonged periods of wet weather, the butterflies remain out in the open for a week or more, with their wings wrapped tightly around the dead flower heads of knapweed plants – Adrian Hoskins

Why do butterflies migrate ?

When butterflies first appeared on Earth, the present day continents were all connected to form one giant land mass. Nature tries to fill every available niche, so butterflies would have naturally been nomadic, their colonies moving seasonally from one area to another in search of suitable habitats.

As the continents drifted apart, species with weak flight became increasingly unable to cross newly forming natural barriers such as oceans and mountain ranges. Certain species however were more robust, and managed to overcome the barriers. In some species the inclination to migrate became imprinted genetically, and they still migrate today – if/when environmental conditions are suitable.

The most famous migratory butterfly is the Monarch Danaus plexippus, which migrates annually over a distance of 2000 miles ( 3200km ) between it’s northern breeding territories in Canada, and it’s southern over-wintering grounds in Mexico. Read more about the Monarch here.

The story of the Monarch – click here.

Why do Hairstreaks rub their wings together ?

Hairstreaks usually have a pattern of lines or stripes on the underside wings. These, in combination with ocelli ( false eye markings ) and short tails ( false antennae ) act to divert attention away from the head, and towards the outer edge of the hindwings. By oscillating the wings, the tails are made to wiggle like antennae, further increasing the illusion that the butterfly is ‘back to front’. Attacking birds will always aim at the head of a butterfly, but are tricked into aiming at the tail. The butterfly is thus able to escape in the opposite direction unharmed. Another reason for wing-rubbing is that male Hairstreaks have patches of specialised wing scales – ‘androconia’, located on their upperside forewings. Sacs at the base of these scales contain pheromones. Rubbing the wings together helps to disseminate the pheromones, which attract females and induce them to mate.

Spindasis seliga, Gopeng, West Malaysia – Adrian Hoskins

Why do Whites bask with their wings half-open ?

This activity is called reflectance basking. Butterflies with dark wings usually open them fully when basking, to expose the maximum area to the sun’s rays, enabling them to warm up rapidly and gain energy. Whites, Blues and Coppers however have wing surfaces which reflect, rather than absorb solar energy. Consequently they bask with their wings half open, so that the heat produced by sunlight falling on the dark thorax is contained within the ‘cage’ of the half-open wings, rather than being dispersed on the breeze.

Small White Pieris rapae, 2nd brood female, Noar Hill, Hampshire – Adrian Hoskins

How much rainforest is destroyed every year ?

A very difficult question to answer, because some areas are entirely destroyed, while other areas are left semi-intact, but severely degraded.

In excess of 10,000 square miles ( 2.6 million hectares ) of the Amazon rainforest is deliberately burnt down every year, primarily to make way for cattle pastures. These pastures are very poor in nutrients, so support only very small numbers of cattle. The pastures are burned annually to promote new grass growth and to destroy cattle parasites. These fires rage uncontrolled, setting fire to further areas of forest. Deforested areas are much hotter and drier than the rainforests – consequently the average temperature of the entire region rises and the humidity falls even more dramatically. This causes major changes in the vegetation structure of the remaining areas of rainforest, leading to reduced biodiversity even in protected areas.

Please visit the Rainforests pages to see how YOU can help to protect the areas that remain.

What are the red bits on this Marbled White ?

Marbled White Melanargia galathea, with Trombidium breei mites on thorax – Adrian Hoskins

Adult butterflies, particularly the males of Meadow Brown Maniola jurtina, Marbled White Melanargia galathea, and Common Blue Polyommatus icarus are commonly parasitised by these red mites Trombidium breei, which normally attach themselves to the thorax of the butterfly.

They transfer from host to host when the butterflies alight to nectar at flowers. Studies on Meadow Browns have shown that the mites have no detectable effect on the flight performance, orientation ability or lifespan.

Why do Danaines feed at dry, dead plant stems ?

The habit which butterflies have of feeding at dry, dead plant stalks is not confined to Danaines it is also very common amongst Ithomiines, and not unknown amongst Satyrines and Nymphalines. I’ve even seen White Admirals doing it in Britain.

Only male butterflies indulge in this habit. The purpose is to acquire pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which in the case of Danaines and Ithomiines are chemically converted into pheromones. These are later disseminated via ‘hair pencil’ scales on the abdomen ( Danaines ) or wings ( Ithomiines ), to entice females into copulation.

The alkaloids are also known to be toxic to birds, inducing vomiting, so that a bird which has tasted an Ithomiine or Danaine is unlikely to attack another similarly patterned butterfly. It is also likely that the alkaloids are passed to females during copulation, and may be vital in the production of viable eggs.

How are butterfly populations monitored ?

A ‘transect’ is one of several methods used to monitor butterfly populations. Other methods include ‘mark and recapture’ and ‘species-related estimation’.

Transects

This method involves an individual or group of individuals who undertake a regular weekly walk that follows a fixed route through a butterfly habitat. The route is divided into sections, each representing a different sub-habitat. A transect at a woodland site for example might include a section through a recently coppiced area, another section through a fir plantation, and another through a stand of mature oaks.

The butterflies seen in each section are counted, and the figures compared to those obtained in other sections, or from the same section in past years. The figures do not represent accurate population counts, but are of value in assessing how numbers fluctuate in response to management factors such as grazing or coppicing regimes.

Unfortunately the method has many disadvantages – a) conspicuous species such as Small Whites or Brimstones can be easily counted, but smaller and duller species such as Dingy Skippers and female Chalkhill Blues tend to be greatly under-estimated; b) butterflies flying in open grassland are more easily counted than those in woodlands; and c) the numbers of each species which are active and observable vary greatly according to climate, local weather conditions, time of day and other factors.

Mark and recapture

This method involves capturing every individual of a particular species, numbering and tagging it by marking it with a spot of paint, and releasing it. The following day the process is repeated, and the number of ‘missing’ butterflies is counted, while ‘new arrivals’ are themselves marked. Over a 2 or 3 week period it is possible to analyse the build up of populations, the lifespan of individuals, and the movement of individuals from one part of the site to another.

The disadvantages are – a) it is not possible to know why individuals go ‘missing’ – do they die, do they disperse or migrate, are they simply copulating or resting and thus not captured ? b) this method works quite well for certain species at small sites, but is impracticable at large sites, and impossible for species such as Purple Hairstreak which spend all day at the top of oak trees.

Species-related estimation

This method uses a combination of ‘field knowledge’ and calculation. An experienced entomologist might e.g. walk around a grassland site counting the numbers of male Chalkhill Blues. Perhaps he / she counts a total of 300 males in an hour.

This is doubled to 600 to take account of the female percentage of the population. Next it is multiplied by a factor which takes into account the area of the site where similar habitat occurs – perhaps the walk only took the entomologist through 10 percent of the habitat, so the figure would be multiplied by 10 to give a total of 6000.

The count only took place for one hour, on one day, but the species may have a flight season lasting several weeks, so other factors must be taken into account : What percentage of the total population had yet emerged ? What percentage were flying during the hour that the count took place ? Various formulae ( arrived at from mark and recapture data ) can be applied to calculate the approximate total population size.

Multiplying the counted number of individuals ( 300 ) by the appropriate factor might result in a total population size as small as 1000, or as large as 20,000, depending on the size of the site, the available habitat, the behaviour of the butterfly, and at what stage in the flight season the count occurred.

The disadvantages of this method are – a) it is highly subjective – for it to have any comparative value, the same entomologist and the same formulae would have to be used at every site; b) areas of a site that appear to be identical may hold vastly different numbers of butterflies – e.g. some areas might have a deeper soil – a factor that affects the vegetation mixture, sward height and microclimate.

What to do with a hibernating butterfly in my house ?

The best course of action is to put the butterfly outside, making sure it is cool and protected from wind and rain, but in a position where the sun will reach it when it is time to awaken in spring.

You could place it within a pile of logs for example, in a hollow tree trunk. The most important thing is that it must have an escape route, and must be protected from birds, and from spiders ( so don’t put it in a shed or greenhouse ).If the butterfly wakes up and flies away on a sunny day in the winter it will find its own way to another safe hiding place.

What is the biggest insect that ever lived ?

Fossils of a prehistoric dragonfly Meganeura monyi from the order Protodonata make it the largest insect ever to be found, with a full wingspan of 30 inches and a body length of 18 inches. The Meganeura dragonfly lived about 250 million years ago until it became extinct at the end of the Paleozoic Era. It flew in Britain and France at a time when the climate in Europe was tropical.

What is the fastest flying butterfly ?

The Monarch Danaus plexippus is thought to be the fastest flying butterfly, with a top speed of up to 20 mph in still air. However several hawkmoths ( Sphingidae ) have been measured at speeds of over 30mph. The fastest flying moth however is the Black Cutworm ( Noctuidae ) Agrotis ipsilon which can reach flight speeds of up to 70mph / 113kph.

All Hawkmoths ( Sphingidae ) throughout the world have caterpillars that are equipped with a horn at the tail end. In some species it is short and may be curled like a pig’s tail, while in others it can be extremely long – almost as long as the caterpillar itself !

These horns look sharp and dangerous but are in fact quite soft to touch. They cannot sting and are entirely harmless. The purpose of the horns is apparently unknown and would make a fascinating subject for a scientific study.

Are any caterpillars dangerous to touch ?

Drinker moth larva Euthrix potatoria – its hairs cause mild itching – Adrian Hoskins

There are over half a million species of caterpillar in the world, and most are completely harmless to touch. Some however, particularly those in the families Megalopygidae, Saturniidae, Lymantridae and Lasiocampidae have hairs or spines which can irritate or sting.

In Europe the most well known example the Brown-tail moth Euproctis chrysorrhoea. The larval webs of this moth are commonly found on hawthorn and bramble, particularly in coastal areas of southern England. The caterpillars shed their hairs easily, and if these become airborne and find their way into human eyes they can cause painful inflammation.

Automeris liberia ( Saturniidae ), Peru – its spines can deliver a painful sting – Adrian Hoskins

There are also many species of Saturniidae e.g. Automeris liberia whose caterpillars are adorned with dozens of stinging spines, each shaped like a miniature Xmas tree. In most cases the sting is no worse than that of a nettle plant, but in at least one species it can be lethal :The well camouflaged spiked caterpillars of Lonomia obliqua are often found clustered in groups of up to 100 on the trunks of trees in Amazonia.

There have been many incidents where people have unwittingly touched or rubbed their arm against groups of these caterpillars that were gathered on tree trunks. The effects of a dose from multiple caterpillars can be very severe, including massive intercranial haemorrhaging and kidney failure. Lonomia obliqua caterpillars are a frequent cause of death in southern Brazil – 354 people died between 1989 and 2005. The fatality rate is about 1.7% – roughly equivalent to that of rattlesnake bites. If in doubt keep well away from spiky caterpillars!

Do some moths have feathers instead of wings ?

Many-plumed moth Alucita hexadactyla – Adrian Hoskins

In a manner of speaking, yes. Most moths have 2 pairs of overlapping wings, each comprised of a very thin double membrane with rigidity supplied by a network of tubular veins that radiate from the base of the wings. The Plume moths ( Pterophorinae ) and Many-plumed moths ( Alucitidae ) however have no wing membranes. Instead their fore and hind wings each consist of feathery plumes – rigid spines from which branch dozens of long thin plume-like scales.

There are 186 known species of Alucitidae worldwide, many of which have only been discovered in the last 20 years. The name of the moth illustrated above, hexadactyla translates as ’20 fingers’ and is a misnomer as the moth actually has 24 ‘feathers’, although some are hidden from view.

Which layer of the rainforest do butterflies live in ?

Butterflies live at all layers in the rainforest. Some species never fly more than about a foot above the ground. Others live permanently at the top of the tallest trees. A myriad of other species live in the various layers in between. There are also many species which normally live in the tree tops but sometimes come down to ground level at “light gaps” where sunlight penetrates to the forest floor.

Why do male butterflies emerge before females ?

In species which overwinter as adults, e.g. the Brimstone, it is noticeable that males awaken from hibernation about 2 or 3 weeks before the first females appear. The probable reason is that prior to copulation the females are very sedentary – it would be wasteful for them to fly until after they have mated, and would expose them to the risk of predation unnecessarily. Males on the other hand need a few days beforehand to feed up on flower nectar and build up their food reserves, giving them the energy to enable them to fly all day in search of potential mates.

In species that emerge from the chrysalis in spring and summer, e.g. the Swallowtail, the males emerge on average about a week before the females. The reason for this is that females lose their attraction to males very quickly, probably because the strength of their pheromones diminishes with passing time. Consequently they must mate within a day or two of emergence, so nature ensures that there are plenty of males already available for the females when they emerge.

Why do butterflies gather at sandbanks and mud ?

Butterflies seen on sandbanks or imbibing moisture from muddy patches are almost always males. They home in on sources of sodium and nitrates which are found dissolved in mud or damp sand. This process is commonly called ‘mud-puddling’. Sodium is vital for physiological functions including digestion, reproduction and flight.

Urine-soaked ground, carnivore dung and bird droppings are especially rich in these minerals, and can attract large aggregations of males. Males usually mate with more than one female, so after mating they need to puddle again to replenish lost salts. Typically just one or two males will chance upon a suitable feeding spot, but other butterflies flying past seem able to recognise their brethren on the ground, and swoop down to join them.

The bright patch of colourful butterflies quickly becomes a magnet to every passing male of the same species. Females do not normally ‘mud-puddle’, they feed instead on nectar, fallen fruit and other organic matter. They obtain their sodium in a different way. It is passed to them along with spermatophore, by the males during copulation. Females therefore do not need to waste valuable time puddling, and can instead concentrate on searching for good oviposition sites.

Phoebis argante and Rhabdodryas trite. Males aggregating at Satipo, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

Protesilaus earis, Madre de Dios, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

How long ago did butterflies evolve ?

Estimates of the age of the earliest insect fossils date back to at least 300 million years ago ( MYA ). The earliest Lepidoptera ( butterflies, moths and skippers ) are generally supposed to have evolved from the Trichoptera ( caddis flies ) somewhere in the region of 140-200 MYA, at roughly the same time as the appearance of the first flowering plants. At one time, the land masses of the Earth were divided into 4 continents – Laurentia, Baltica, Siberia and Gondwanaland. They gradually converged, and about 350 MYA became linked to form the super-continent Pangaea. Butterflies and other insects probably originated on Pangaea, which then began to break up about 130 MYA, ultimately forming the present day continents.

The species which first appeared on Pangaea have long been extinct, but nevertheless many of the genera and species flying today have been in existence for millions of years – the South American genus Brassolis for example first evolved in the late Eocene Period, about 40 million years ago.

More information on this subject can be found in the Evolution section.

How high can butterflies fly ?

The highest flying butterfly known is the Satyrine Paralasa nepalica, discovered by PAULUS in 1983. The butterfly is found at altitudes as high as 4500m ( 14800 ft ) in Shey Phoksundo national park in Nepal. Another butterfly, the Uncompahgre Fritillary Boloria improba acrocnema, spends its entire lifecycle at altitudes between 4000-4200m in the San Juan mountains of Colorado, USA, although other subspecies breed at lower altitudes in Canada. Perhaps even more amazing however is the Painted Lady Vanessa cardui which is found in almost every region of the world in habitats ranging from deserts to rainforests, prairies and tundra, and has been recorded at altitudes between sea level and 4000m !

What are frass-chains ?

The theory is that it is a defence strategy to protect tiny larvae from marauding ants observations by Phil DeVries for example indicate that ants are unwilling to walk out on the ‘tight-rope’ to attack larvae. This may be because they cannot grip it properly to walk on, or possibly because the frass contains a toxin that deters them. The latter might also explain why larvae of many micro moths camouflage themselves with their droppings, rather than decorating themselves with fragments of leaves.

Where did the Purple Emperor’s name originate ?

In the British colonial era butterfly collecting was a popular Pastime for army officers, who invented English names for their captures. It became traditional to name insects after army or naval ranks or sovereign titles. Hence there are moths such as the Golden Emperor, and butterflies including the Archduke, Monarch, Commodore, Black Prince, Commander, Chocolate Soldier, Baron, Palm King, Lance Sergeant, Tawny Rajah and Queen Alexandra Birdwing. 

The Purple Emperor butterfly however was named by Moses Harris in 1766. The reason for its name was probably simply a reference to it’s magnificence – it is one of the largest and most highly prized butterflies in Europe. The name could also be connected to the fact that the male Purple Emperors habitually perch on clumps of leaves, known commonly as “thrones” at the top of high oak trees. They use these perches as lookout posts from which to sight and intercept females. It is common to see groups of males engaged in aerial dog-fights, competing for the best “throne” position.

Purple Emperor Apatura iris, male, Hampshire, England – Adrian Hoskins

Why do some butterflies have hairy eyes ?

All butterflies in the genus Lethe ( Satyrinae ) have a dense layer of fine bristles or ‘hairs’ on their compound eyes. My observations of various Lethe species in Sri Lanka, Borneo and West Malaysia indicate that the adults are strongly attracted to wet dung and spend long periods probing into it, at which times their heads push right into the substance. It seems possible therefore that the ‘hairs’ may function in the same way as a cat’s whiskers, acting as tactile sensors which warn the butterfly if their eyes get too close to the dung, which would almost certainly blind them if it adhered to the surface of the eyes.

Bear in mind however that not everything in nature has a purpose or reason. It could simply be the case that the hairs first appeared as a random mutation that was neither beneficial or harmful, and consequently there would be no natural selection pressure for it to ‘breed out’ and revert to a non-hairy eye.

Frass chains are constructed by many caterpillars, chiefly neotropical and Afro-Asian Nymphalidae. When not feeding, the young larvae rest at the tip of a chain constructed from their own droppings. The larva typically eats away the leaf tissue, leaving only the midrib intact, and then deposits a row of its droppings along the midrib. The droppings are bound together with silk. The line or ‘chain’ of droppings ( frass ) is then extended so it projects by about 2 centimetres beyond the leaf tip.