Amazon Conservation Society – protecting the Amazon rainforest.

Australian Rainforest Conservation Society – protecting the rainforests of Queensland.

Cristalino Ecological Foundation – rainforest purchase, education, political lobbying in Brazil.

Iwokrama – research and protection of rainforests in Guyana.

Mongabay – detailed up to date news about rainforest destruction.

Rainforest Concern – protecting rainforests and cloud-forests in Ecuador and elsewhere.

Rainforest Portal – ( Ecological Internet ) link to all major rainforest conservation agencies.

Seacology – protecting rainforests on islands.

World Land Trust – purchasing and protecting wildlife habitats worldwide

Over 10,000 square miles ( 2.6 million hectares ) of the Amazon rainforest is deliberately burnt down every year to make way for soybean plantations and cattle pastures.

The pastures are very poor in nutrients, so support only very low densities of cattle. The land is burned annually to promote new grass growth and to destroy cattle parasites. The fires often rage uncontrolled, setting fire to further areas of forest.

Deforested areas are considerably hotter and drier than the rainforests. As a result the average temperature of the entire Amazon region rises and the humidity falls even more dramatically. This causes major changes in the vegetation structure of the remaining areas of forest, leading to reduced biodiversity even in protected areas.

The Amazon rainforests and the cloudforests of the Andes together account for about 40% of all butterfly species on Earth. If deforestation continues at it’s present rate, the rainforests will have entirely disappeared within 50 years, and almost half of the world’s butterfly species will by then be extinct, with nothing more than museum specimens and photographs remaining.
We urges everyone viewing this website to take immediate action – please visit the rainforestportal and mongabay websites where you can find more detailed information, and take part in on-line petitions to save the Amazon and the rainforests of Africa and Asia.

Aerial view of fires burning in the southern Amazon

Deforestation in Rondonia, Brazil. Just imagine what the 2012 map looks like !

It is difficult for someone born and raised in the northern hemisphere to comprehend the incredible diversity and abundance of butterflies in the tropics. In Britain e.g. a butterfly enthusiast exploring a 1000 hectare / 4 square mile mosaic of deciduous forest and chalk grassland would be considered lucky to see 30 species in an entire year. In Peru, Brazil or Ecuador however you would be justified in considering yourself unfortunate if you saw less than 600 species in a similar sized area – and you would probably be able to see well over 300 in a single week.

The great diversity of butterflies in the tropics is largely due to the extraordinary range of climatic conditions and the huge variety of different habitats, which include rainforests, cloudforests, heaths, grasslands and deserts, each comprising of many sub-habitats. Together these create an enormous array of ecological niches in which species can exist and evolve. In rainforest e.g. some butterflies such as Doxocopa and Arcas live high in the tree tops, but most Satyrines and Ithomiines spend all their lives in the understorey or at ground level.

The diagram below gives an indication of the butterfly genera associated with various layers within a rainforest. It should not be interpreted too literally – the males of many tree-top dwelling species such as Melanis, Doxocopa and Perisama commonly descend to ground level to imbibe mineralised moisture. Also, in places where trees have fallen, shafts of sunlight penetrate, creating “light gaps” which encourage many other species to descend to lower levels.

Other factors contributing to the great diversity of butterflies are the hot climate and the evergreen nature of the foliage in the tropics. These enable several generations to breed each year – as many as 10 generations for some species, compared with just one or two in temperate regions. This rapid rate of reproduction provides many more opportunities for mutations to arise, and for new species to evolve.

The diagram above gives a very rough indication of the total number of different butterfly species which can be found at various altitudes in the eastern Andes. As can be seen, at about 500m there are typically around 400 species. This generally increases to a maximum of about 500 at 1500m and then decreases with rising altitude until there are only about 50 species at 3000m. The diagram is only intended as a rough guide – the actual number of species is governed by geographical location and numerous other factors.

Some species have a very restricted altitudinal range e.g. Dulcedo polita is only found below 400m; and Rhetus dysonii is restricted to a belt between 1000-1500m. There are several Satyrine genera that are restricted to the cloudforest / grassland transition zone between about 2800-3200m. These include Pedaliodes, Lymanopoda, Eretris and Steroma. A very small number of species e.g. Dione moneta and Hylephila phyleus are able to exist across the whole spectrum of altitudes and habitats from 0-3500m. The vast majority of tropical butterflies however are found only between 0-1500m, as shown in the diagram below.

Seasonality

There is a popular misconception that butterflies can be found in equal abundance at all times of the year in the tropics. It’s true that seasonality is far less pronounced than in temperate regions of the world, but nevertheless most areas experience distinct wet and dry seasons which have a major impact on diversity and abundance.

Deciduous forests and grasslands

In deciduous regions such as Guanacaste in Costa Rica butterflies are far more abundant in the wet season. During the dry season they are scarce and hide away deep in the forest where they gather at damp gullies and riverbeds. About 3-4 weeks after the first rains, butterflies suddenly emerge en masse. First to emerge are usually the Ithomiines, Morphos and Satyrines. The Riodinidae, Pieridae, Papilionidae, Melitaeinae, Apaturinae and Hesperiidae tend to follow a few weeks later, peaking in July. The Lycaenidae are usually the last to emerge.

The total number of species found in the deciduous regions is small compared to those in rainforests and cloudforests largely because deciduous forests only support a small number of Ithomiines – and consequently there are far fewer Mullerian and Batesian mimic species.

The weather systems that control seasonality are complex. Generally speaking, in Central America and the southern Amazon, both of which are a considerable distance from the equator, seasonality is very pronounced. There may be long periods of drought, while at other times of year it rains for several hours every day. In Ecuador, Peru and the northern Amazon, all of which are much closer to the equator, seasonality is less extreme.

In these areas it rains periodically even during the dry season. Consequently butterfly abundance is more even throughout the year. Nevertheless there are population peaks and troughs, because butterflies try to time their emergence to ensure that their foodplants have fresh young leaves at the time when their larvae hatch.

In both Central and South America the presence of huge mountain ranges has a dramatic affect on climate and on butterfly populations. When the winds are blowing from the west, the western slopes of the Andes receive high rainfall but the eastern slopes and the upper Amazon are dry. When the winds are blowing from the east the situation is reversed. During El Nino years however changes in ocean and air currents cause the seasons to reverse.

In areas where the seasonality is extreme, many species produce dry and wet season forms which differ in colour and even in shape. Dry season forms tend to have cryptic “dead-leaf” patterns and colours to camouflage them as they rest among dead brown and yellow leaves. Wet season morphs on the other hand are usually darker with more contrasting patterns and rounder wings.

Taygetis mermeria, dry season form	Taygetis mermeria, wet season form

Tributary of Sungai Tembeling, altitude 100m, Malaysia – Adrian Hoskins

The incredibly beautiful and species-rich rainforests of the tropics are rapidly disappearing. Paradise is being replaced by palm oil plantations, soybean prairies, and cattle ranches. The cloud forests are disappearing almost as quickly, replaced by coffee, tea, rubber, and eucalyptus plantations.

On this page, we begin by visiting the lowland rainforests of West Malaysia, and then take a journey across Peru, briefly exploring some of the wonderful places that still survive – where the diversity and abundance of butterflies, moths, and forest wildlife can only be described as mind-boggling.

The illustration above depicts a minor black-water tributary of the Sungai Tembeling river in Taman Negara National Park, West Malaysia. The interior of Taman Negara is dense and dark, with few butterflies to be seen.

The reason is that butterflies in the tropics spend most of their lives high in the treetops. Luckily for butterfly enthusiasts, the males of many species periodically descend to ground level to imbibe mineralized moisture, and at these times, it is common to see swarms of Graphium sarpedon and Catopsilia pomona settled on river sandbanks.

Numerous other beautiful species, such as Cyrestis Mapwings, Spindasis Silverlines, Parthenos Clippers, and Cirrochroa Yeoman butterflies, can also be found along the shores. At slightly higher altitudes, there are a myriad of even more stunning butterflies, including spectacular Triodes and Trogonoptera birdwings, Lamproptera Dragontails, and exquisite long-tailed hairstreaks such as Eooxylides tharis.

Rio Madre de Dios, altitude 500m, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

Our journey now takes us to the Amazon. Vast swathes of rainforest in South America have been destroyed or severely degraded, but there are still many places in Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia where sizable tracts of unspoilt habitat survive.

The rainforests at the eastern edge of the Peruvian Andes are extremely rich in butterflies. Manu and Tambopata for example are both known to hold over 1500 species. The photo above was taken from a boat on the mighty Rio Madre de Dios river. The river sandbanks here attract hundreds of different species

Including Heraclides Swallowtails, stunning Marpesia Daggerwings, Adelpha Sisters, Baeotus Beauties, Panacea Flashers, and beautiful Philaethria and Dryas Longwings.

Searching tree trunks in open areas often reveals the presence of several beautiful calico-patterned Hamadryas Cracker species. They are so named because the males produce a fascinating crackling sound as they cavort around the trees. The interior of the forests here teem with butterflies. Along the well-established trails, it is common to see huge dazzling blue Morpho butterflies, delicate Ithomia Glasswings, and Satyrines including Caeruleuptychia, Taygetis, Cithaerias, Haetera, and Pierella.

At dusk and dawn, enormous Caligo Owl butterflies are commonly seen. This is also a great time to go bird-watching or to travel by canoe along the river tributaries, where you can often find families of capybaras on the riverbanks. Other creatures that can be seen include caiman, peccaries, and sloths. Tapirs are also seen occasionally, although these beautiful and fascinating animals are quite shy and difficult to spot.

Rainforest / Cloudforest transition zone

Cloudforest at Rio Kosnipata, altitude 1400m, Manu, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

The mid-elevation forests lying between about 600-1600m above sea level have the highest species diversity as they form a transition zone where lowland butterflies and cloudforest species overlap. The scenery at this altitude is overwhelmingly beautiful and is best appreciated in the early morning when the mist and cloud rises, and the warm glow of sunshine illuminates the mountainsides.

Metalmark butterflies are frequent along sunny trails in the forest. The numerous stunning species encountered include long-tailed Rhetus and Ancyluris Doctors, amazing transparent Chorinia Angels, pretty Melanis Pixies, metallic blue Lasaia butterflies, and exquisite glittering green Caria species.

Among the most well-known and beautiful species in Amazonia are the Heliconius Longwings. These butterflies are perhaps the most graceful anywhere on Earth, spectacularly marked with streaks and patches of red, yellow, and/or blue on a black ground color.

At these elevations, we also encounter many members of the Biblidinae, including fascinating Diaethria and Callicore Numberwings, various Doxocopa Emperors, and gorgeous Catonephele Firewings. The mid-elevation forests are also home to many large and spectacular skippers, including golden-yellow Myscelus Glories, Pyrrhopyge Firetips, and blue-banded Phocides Paradise Skippers.

High Altitude Cloudforest

Cloudforest, altitude 2400m, Wayqecha-Manu road, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

At higher elevations, rain is more frequent, and even in the middle of the dry season, the mountains are often shrouded in mist until late morning. Temperatures in the lowlands often exceed 35°C, but at altitudes above 2000m, it rarely rises above 25°C and is often considerably cooler. Consequently, the species found here differ from those found in the lowlands.

At 1600m, most of the low altitude and transition-zone families are still represented, but there is a marked change in the genera present. Among the Nymphalidae, the dominant genera include Dione Longwings, Pteronymia Glasswings, Hypanartia Admirals, and Perisama species. Above this altitude, they are joined by increasing numbers of Pronophilines. The latter are a fascinating group of high-elevation Satyrines, including genera such as Lymanopoda, Manerebia, Corades, and Lasiophila.

Elfin Forest / Paramo Transition Zone

Cloudforest / puna grassland transition zone, altitude 3000m, Tres Cruces, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

At about 3000m altitude, there is a dramatic change in habitat as the cloud forests give way to the paramo and puna grasslands. Butterfly abundance and diversity here are considerably poorer than at lower altitudes, but at the forest/paramo transition zone, there are many fascinating genera to be found.

Swirling mists often obscure the scenery and cause butterflies to hide away in bushes or in deep grass tussocks. Sunshine periodically breaks through, however, and butterfly enthusiasts then grab the opportunity to search for high altitude specialties such as Colias Andean Clouded Yellows, Lymanopoda Mountain Satyrs, and ornate Junea butterflies.

The great appeal of high altitude butterflying is that such habitats hold many butterflies that are still unknown to science, so there is a good chance of discovering a new species among the Pronophiline genera Pedaliodes and Steremnia.

Puna grassland, altitude 3500-4000m, Shismay, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

A rainforest experience, described by Adrian Hoskins

It is 6.00am, and we are awoken by the raucous echoing call of a troop of howler monkeys. They are perhaps 2 km away, but the sound fills the forest around us. Dawn is breaking as we venture along a trail through the primary rainforest.

Mysterious butterflies flit around us. I spot where they have settled, but their amazing camouflage makes them almost impossible to locate. Some, like Taygetis angulosa look exactly like dead leaves. Others, like Haetera piera, Cithaerias pireta and Ithomia agnosia are almost entirely transparent. Enormous Caligo Owl butterflies flit from one tree trunk to another. Their wings have a feathery appearance and are marked with false ‘owl eyes’, enough to startle any predatory bird and give the butterfly a chance to escape.

Every butterfly species here has its own distinct personality. The zebra-striped Colobura dirce sits motionless on tree trunks as it feeds at sap runs, but if disturbed, instead of taking flight it scuttles around to hide on the opposite side of the tree. The striped hairstreak Arawacus separata sits facing sideways on a leaf, but as soon as you get within a metre, it rotates to show you its posterior!

Like many other butterflies it seems to take delight in taunting human observers, but its odd behaviour is simply a survival strategy – by rotating it narrows its profile and is much harder for a predator to spot. Butterflies use many strategies to hide themselves from predators. Many use camouflage or disguise. Others, such as the Eurybia Riodinids and the Nascus skippers, hide under leaves, darting out periodically to investigate intruders, before disappearing again beneath another nearby leaf.

Rhetus periander, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

We come to a small glade, the site of a peccary mud wallow. Hundreds of butterflies are swarming around us – gorgeous black and yellow swallowtails, brilliant red and black Callicores, bright orange Julias, and Morphos – dazzling metallic blue butterflies the size of saucers. The muddy ground in the glade is carpeted with butterflies, which settle at our feet to imbibe at the mineral-rich mud. Male butterflies obtain vital chemicals this way, and pass them to females during copulation.

There are myriads of butterflies here, and it’s impossible to walk without treading on them. Amongst them are glittering green Caria Metalmarks, red Marpesia Daggerwings and the stunning Blue Doctor Rhetus periander. At the edge of the glade we watch a Starry Night Hamadryas velutina basking head-downwards on a tree trunk. It is possibly the most beautiful butterfly we have seen today, with large velvety black wings adorned with hundreds of shimmering blue spots.

11.00am – It is hot now, and the forest resounds with the call of giant cicadas. The sound begins as a slow hesitant clicking, gradually accelerates to a rattle, then a hum, and escalates into a haunting siren wail which fills the air for a few moments before fading again into silence.

We have been here for 6 days, and seen almost 300 butterfly species, several of them previously unknown to science. Every step along the trails reveals exciting new finds – huge helicopter flies, strange hemipteran bugs, weird beetles, stick insects, and praying mantises.

A little later we climb the canopy tower. As we ascend we notice that every layer in the forest has its own characteristic butterfly fauna – Pierella Lady Slippers and Taygetis Dead-leafs at ground level, Tiger-mimics at about 3 metres, Heliconius at 10-20 metres. Many species, particularly the hairstreaks and metalmarks spend their lives almost entirely in the tree tops, and rarely descend to ground level. After a tiring climb we finally arrive at the top of the tower. We spend a relaxing half hour watching red and green macaws, great egrets, snail kites and oropendolas flying past.

It is difficult to drag ourselves away, as the view across the vast expanse of pristine rainforest is awe-inspiring, but it is time for lunch, so we descend to ground level and slowly wander back along the trails to our base. We are so distracted by the myriads of butterflies seen along the route that we arrive late, and are so busy talking about the marvels we have seen that we barely find time to eat.

Phoebis argante and Rhabdodryas trite swarming on an Amazonian tributary – Adrian Hoskins

In the afternoon we travel upriver by dugout canoe. Amazon kingfishers swoop past, a harpy eagle hovers high in the sky above us. On a nearby rocky island we see a caiman basking, and along the riverbanks we see sun bitterns and the beautiful capped heron.

Strings of bright yellow Eurema and Phoebis butterflies fly in follow-the-leader fashion along the river’s edge. Hundreds gather to imbibe moisture on the sandbanks, erupting into flight as our boat passes. We notice how most butterflies congregate with others of their own species – there are clusters of Marpesia Daggerwings, groups of Heraclides Swallowtails, and flocks of Protesilaus Swordtails and bright orange Julias. Many different species come and go throughout the day, until late afternoon, when a swirling swarm of migrating Eunica Purplewings arrives and ousts every other species.

We stop at various places along the river to explore the trails. Imaginary snakes wait to strike from behind every tree. But they are not all imaginary. Clambering up a riverbank we suddenly find our-selves confronted by an enormous anaconda with a massive head and a body 8 metres in length! Luckily for us it has already eaten – its belly greatly distended by the capybara which became its breakfast!

As the day cools down, we journey back along the river. Beautiful birds fly across our path – green ibis, ringed kingfisher, striated heron, kiskadee, paradise jacamar. A giant river otter inquisitively pops its head out of the water next to the boat. A capybara, looking like an enormous guinea pig, looks across at us from the riverbank.

During the next half hour we see a dozen tapirs, amongst the most enchanting and gentle of all animals, emerging from the forest at different spots along the riverbank. Back at our base the light is fading fast, and the howler monkeys roar again. We sit down for our evening meal, comparing notes about the wonders we have seen, and agree that this is probably the most wonderful place on Earth.

Rio Madre de Dios, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

The next morning we travel downstream for an hour, disembark from our dugout, and get into a jeep. We leave behind the beautiful pristine rainforest, travelling through secondary forest and then for several miles through cattle pastures, until we come to the town where we catch a plane to our next destination. For 4 hours we fly across what was formerly rainforest, but all we see is a huge expanse of semi-desert. The forest has all been burnt down and turned into cattle pasture, but the pasture only lasts for a few years, and all that remains now is a barren dusty landscape dotted with termite mounds. Looking down from our plane we see a dead parched world, devoid of life.

We have been told that our next destination is an oasis – an ‘island’ of pristine rainforest that has miraculously survived amidst a desert of failed cattle ranches in the state of Rondonia. Our plane lands and we board a bus. For the next 5 hours we are driven across 200 miles of devastated land. The forest has gone, the cattle ranches have failed, and the air is hot, dry and dusty. By the time we arrive at our base we have a feeling of the most intense grief.

Many of us, all grown men, are in a state of stunned silence. We have left the most wonderful and precious environment imaginable, and now realise the full horror of what is happening in Brazil. The foul air around us is thick with smoke, our eyes are watering, and we are struggling to breathe.

The spot where we are now standing was once the richest butterfly site known on Earth. Just 30 years ago it supported over 1500 butterfly species, but now they are very scarce. Within 5 years they will almost certainly be lost forever. For 4 days we search the tiny fragment of forest that still remains here, looking in vain for butterflies, muttering in disbelief at what has happened here. The incredibly rich forest, teeming with life, has been devastated, the life is gone.

Please help to save rainforests, by signing on-line petitions and lobbying politicians.