Introduction

The subfamily Danainae, which includes the Monarchs, Tigers, Crows and Tree Nymphs, comprises of about 190 species worldwide.

All Danaines are thought to be distasteful to birds. Their bodies contain toxins which are derived from the lactiferous larval foodplants, and are often supplemented by further toxins sequestered from adult food sources. The bright wing patterns “advertise” these unpalatable qualities, in much the same way that the bands of yellow and black of wasps advertise the fact that they can sting. Consequently any bird that suffers the highly unpleasant experience of tasting a Danaine is unlikely to attack other similarly coloured butterflies. Effectively, a few individuals are sacrificed for the good of the species as a whole.

There are 12 Idea species, of which 5 occur in West Malaysia i.e. hypermnestra, leuconoe, lynceus, iasonia and stolli. The other 7 species are found variously in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, the Philippines, Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi, Irian and Papua New Guinea.

Tree Nymphs are very large butterflies, characterised by having translucent white wings patterned with black veins, and numerous oval black spots. They are noted for their slow and very graceful flight, which gives them the appearance of white handkerchiefs floating gently on the breeze.

Idea leuconoe occurs in West Malaysia, and possibly on Taiwan and the Philippines, although there is some confusion among taxonomists about whether the non-Malaysian forms are subspecies of leuconoe, or of another species.

Habitats

This is a relatively common species occurring in coastal mangrove forest and lowland rainforest at altitudes between sea level and about 400m.

Lifecycle

To be completed.

Adult behaviour

These beautiful insects, known variously as Tree Nymphs, Paper Kites, and Rice Paper butterflies, have a very slow and extraordinarily graceful flight. It might appear therefore that they would easily fall victim to avian predators, but like all Danaines Idea are poisonous or highly unpalateable to birds and are not often attacked. The slow flight is their way of advertising the very distinctive pattern, which birds, through past experience, associate with a very unpleasant taste.

In sunny conditions males usually rest with the wings erect or partly open, ready to take flight to intercept potential mates. In cool or cloudy weather they are more relaxed and can sometimes be found feeding at flowers at the side of roads. When feeding they tend to slowly flutter or fan their wings, but when settled on foliage they will bask with wings fully outspread.

Introduction

The genus Cirrochroa comprises of 18 species, of which 15 occur in the Oriental region, plus 2 on Papua New Guinea, and one on the island of Biak.

In the Malaysian species orissa and satellita the butterflies are blackish brown above, with broad bands of yellowish orange. The other 4 Malaysian species surya, tyche, malaya, and emalea are predominantly bright orange, with the apex and wing borders marked in black. All of these species have a very pale brownish undersurface, marked with a whitish transverse band on both wings.

Cirrochroa emalea is a common species, although usually only encountered in one’s and two’s at most localities. During migrations however the butterfly can be seen in much higher numbers.

The butterfly is found on peninsular Malaya, Thailand, Sumatra, Borneo, Java and Palawan.

Habitats

This species occurs in forest edge habitats at elevations between sea level and about 800 metres.

Lifecycle

The only information I have about the lifecycle is that the larvae have short, branched spines, and that at least one Cirrochroa species feeds on Hydnocarpus ( Achariaceae ).

Adult behaviour

The Malay Yeoman has a rapid but graceful flight, circling and gliding in areas of dappled sunlight, before settling on foliage, usually at a height of about 2 metres.

Males can sometimes also be seen imbibing moisture from forest tracks. At such times they are decidedly fidgety, fanning their wings nervously, and flitting from spot to spot. The male depicted in the photograph above spent over half an hour flitting back and forth between a log and a patch of moist soil nearby, and despite being regularly disturbed by a pair of camera-wielding entomologists it was extremely reluctant to move away from it’s favoured patch of ground.

Introduction

There are 8 species in the genus Terinos, most of which are restricted to particular parts of the Oriental or Australian regions, although terpander, clarissa and atlita are all quite widespread.

Both sexes of terpander are rich purple above with 2 large whitish lunules near the termen on the hindwing. They can easily be distinguished from the other Malaysian species atlita and clarissa, as both of these have the termen extended into a short stubby tail.

Terinos terpander is found in Myanmar, Thailand, West Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah, Kalimantan and Java.

Habitats

In Malaysia this species inhabits rainforest at elevations between sea level and about 600 metres. It tends to be found in open areas such as along roadsides, boardwalks and wider forest trails.

Lifecycle

The egg is barrel-shaped, pearly-white in colour, and has about 20 vertical ribs, each connected by a series of tiny ridges. It is laid singly on the underside of leaves of the foodplant.

The larva when fully grown is a dirty pale green colour, with a series of dark green, cream, and greyish stripes running from the orange head to the anal segment. There is a double row of long unbranched shiny black spines along the back, and a row of shorter spines above the spiracles. It has been bred in captivity on Rinorea anguifera ( Violaceae ), but in the wild has been found in Sumatra on Antidesma ( Euphorbiaceae ).

The pretty chrysalis is pale green, with a dark pink line running along the edge of the wing cases either side of the thorax. It has a double row of pink curved spikes along the back, those on the 2nd abdominal segment having chrome silver bases, and those on the 3rd abdominal segment being particularly long, with hooked tips rather like antlers.

Adult behaviour

The adults are active mainly in the mornings, either in overcast or bright sunny conditions. They tend to sit still for long periods later in the day, but can sometimes be disturbed from rest.

Males tend to flit from leaf to leaf, basking here and there for a moment or two before moving on. They can also occasionally be seen on the ground imbibing moisture, and at these times tend to flit constantly from spot to spot, while slowly fanning their wings.

Introduction

The Mapwings, together with their relatives in Chersonesia are medium sized butterflies noted for their attractive patterns of fine lines, and tailed hindwings.

The genus Cyrestis comprises of 25 species, of which 17 occur in the Oriental region. Only 4 occur in West Malaysia – themire, cocles, nivea and maenalis. An additional species theresae occurs on Sumatra and Borneo, while the remainder are found variously from India to Papua New Guinea and the Solomon islands; except for a single species camilla, found in Africa and Madagascar.

Cyrestis nivea occurs in Myanmar, Thailand, West Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, Kalimantan, Palawan, Sulawesi, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands.

The male and female are similar, although the female is a little paler and has slightly more rounded wings. The butterfly can easily be confused with maenalis, but the fine lines on the wings of the latter are darker and more pronounced.

Habitats

This is the commonest Cyrestis species in Malaysia, and is found in primary and secondary forest at elevations between sea level and about 500 metres. Above that altitude it is gradually replaced by maenalis.

Lifecycle

The upper part of the larva is green, covered with tiny pale tubercules that give it a rough texture. On the 5th and 11th segments there is a long curved spiky horn which is dark purplish brown, this colour extending as a saddle which links to the dark lower part of the body. The head is the same colour, and bears a pair of recurved horns. The foodplants of nivea appear to be unrecorded, but Corbet & Pendlebury state that the foodplants of other Cyrestis species include Streblus ilicifolius and Ficus ( both Moraceae ), and Tetracera sarmentosa ( Dilleniaceae ).

Adult behaviour

The Straight-line Mapwing is usually encountered singly, along narrow forest paths where dappled sunlight filters through the foliage.

Males can also be seen on gravel roads, in quarries, or along pebble-strewn river beaches, where they bask in full sunlight. They are attracted to seepages and other moist spots, and will spend long periods settled with wings fully outspread and flattened against the ground, basking in nooks among rubble or small boulders. Males are also known to visit fungi.

Females are seen less often, but sometimes encountered along forest trails, or nectaring at flowers in forest gardens.

Both sexes habitually rest beneath leaves with their wings outspread. Less commonly they will bask on the upper surface of large leaves, but tend to only do so in areas of dappled sunlight.

Introduction

The tiny Maplet butterflies are amongst the most delightful and interesting rainforest species found in Malaysia, delicately marked with fine wavy lines on a bright orange ground colour.

There are 7 members of the genus Chersonesia, all endemic to the Oriental region. They are very closely related to the Cyrestis Mapwings, as can be seen by comparing Chersonesia rahria with the much larger but otherwise virtually identical Cyrestis thyonneus.

Both sexes of rahria are similarly patterned, but the female is slightly paler, with broader and more rounded wings. The pattern is repeated on the underside of the wings in more subtle hues.

Chersonesia rahria, in common with most other members of it’s genus is widespread throughout the Oriental region, being found in West Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Palawan and Sulawesi.

Habitats

This species breeds in primary rainforest at elevations between 0-800m. At higher altitudes it is gradually replaced by C. risa, in which the outer lines on the forewings are straight rather than wavy.

Lifecycle

The yellowish-green egg is dome-shaped with eleven prominent vertical ridges. It is laid singly at the edge of a leaf of the climbing fig Ficus aurantiacea ( and probably other Ficus species ).

Prior to hatching the larva nibbles an almost complete circular channel out of the upper part of the eggshell, thereby creating a trapdoor which it pushes up and out of the way as it emerges.

When small the larva rests on the underside of a leaf, at the tip. It nibbles chunks from either side, and sits on the remaining projecting midrib, pointing inwards, using it as a retreat. At this stage of its life it often decorates its body with its own droppings, possibly because the acrid smell deters ants or parasitoid wasps.

When older the larva has a habit of biting part way through the midrib. The most likely explanation for this is that the sap contains toxins, and that severing the ‘artery’ prevents these from reaching the part which the caterpillar chooses to eat.

The fully grown larva is pale green with oblique stripes of darker green. It is described by Corbet & Pendlebury as being cylindrical and smooth-skinned, “with a pair of long filamentous processes on the 2nd and 8th abdominal segments, the former curved backwards, and the latter forwards, and both serrated on the posterior edge”. The brown head also bears a pair of recurved horns.

The brown chrysalis resembles a small dead leaf. Like the larva, it has a pair of curved horns on the head. There is a small thorn-like projection on the thorax, and a dorsal keel projecting from the abdomen. It is suspended by the cremaster from a leaf or twig.

Adult behaviour

The Chersonesia Maplets are dainty little butterflies which flit regularly from spot to spot, but never stray far from their favoured places. They will often perch momentarily on the underside of a leaf before fluttering daintily to another leaf nearby, on which they settle with wings fully outspread and held flat against the surface. At other times they like to land on the ground, usually on wet leaf litter, and will spend long periods probing among the rotting vegetation, at all times keeping their wings outspread.

The butterflies are commonest in the wet season, and will fly in light rain, although they are much more active in hot sunny weather conditions, at which time they can be found in wet parts of the forest, flying in places where dappled sunlight filters through the trees.

I have never seen either sex visit flowers – both sexes seem to obtain their sustenance either from mineralised moisture on the ground, or from aphid secretions ( and possibly bird droppings ) on the surface of leaves. It is notable however that the closely related Cyrestis Mapwings often visit fungi, and while I have never seen them doing so, Chersonesia are quite likely to behave similarly.

Unlike most butterflies which roost with their wings held erect, Maplets hide overnight or on rainy days beneath leaves, with their wings fully outspread – another feature they share with their relatives in the genus Cyrestis.

Introduction

The Wizard is the only member of the genus Rhinopalpa. The genus gets its name from the pair of long scaly palpi projecting from the butterfly’s head.

Rhinopalpa polynice is found in Assam, Myanmar, Thailand, West Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Sarawak, Sabah, Brunei, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Java and Bali.

Habitats

This species is found in lowland rainforest, including disturbed areas around villages, and along roadsides, at elevations between about 100-500 metres.

Lifecycle

The eggs are laid singly on the larval foodplant Poikilopserma suaveolens ( Urticaceae ).

The caterpillar when fully grown is reddish-brown, marked with black spots along the back and sides; and possesses a double row of long, barbed, recurved spines along the back, and another row of similar spines along each side. A pair of bristly tentacle-like long curved processes project from the head.

The chrysalis is a strange object, and resembles a curled up dead leaf. It is pale brown, with darker spots and specks, and has 3 pairs of horns along the back. The pair nearest the thorax are much larger than the others, and are curved upward and backward, very much like the horns of a cow.

Adult behaviour

Males are occasionally seen in open sunlit areas, imbibing moisture from the edges of ditches or small streams, with their wings held erect. The butterfly depicted on this page was seen along a narrow forest trail, appearing as soon as the sun emerged from behind the clouds. The photograph at the top of the page was the result of lucky timing on the part of the photographer – the butterfly spent several minutes walking about over leaf litter on the forest floor, all the time rapidly fanning its wings, and I was fortunate to catch it at the moment the wings were fully open.

Introduction

The genus Tanaecia comprises of about 30 species, found variously in India, Burma, Thailand, West Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, south China, the Philippines, Java and Bali. Males of most species are dark chocolate brown with broad slightly metallic blue or green marginal bands. Females are much paler and lack the blue / green bands. Instead they are patterned with a series of white or greyish streaks, indented with dark chevrons.

Tanaecia iapis is one of the commoner species. It is found in West Malaysia, Sumatra, Palawan, Borneo and Java.

Habitats

This species inhabits rainforest at elevations between sea level and about 500m.

Lifecycle

The larval foodplants appear to be unrecorded, but larvae of the closely related species lepidea are known to feed on Careya ( Lethycidaceae ) and Melastoma ( Melastomataceae ).

Adult behaviour

Males can be found along forest roads and tracks where they bask on bare ground or on low foliage with their wings outspread. I have observed the female ovipositing on the foliage of an unidentified sapling growing along the edge of a black water tributary in Taman Negara. After making several test landings on various leaves and chemically testing them by puncturing them with the spines on her tibia she finally found a suitable leaf of the correct species. She settled on the leaf, and after a moment began to crawl backwards in a deliberate and unhurried manner until she was able to bend her abdomen under the leaf, where she laid a single egg. Throughout the process she kept her wings fully outspread, using them like a tightrope walker’s pole to help her maintain balance.

Introduction

The Sailors, or Gliders as they are sometimes called, are all members of the genus Neptis – a large and confusing group of butterflies found across much of the world, excluding the Americas. They are noted for their characteristic sailing flight, and their shared theme of white spots and bars on a black background. They are closely allied to Pantoporia, in which the white markings are replaced by orange; and to Athyma which look like Neptis but have more triangular forewings.

The genus Neptis comprises of about 170 species, of which at least 65 occur in Africa, 40+ in the Palaearctic region ( Europe, and Asia north of the Himalayas ), 6 in Australia / New Guinea, and about 50 in the Oriental region. About 16-18 of the latter are found in Malaysia. Distinguishing the species involves careful study of the configuration of the white spots, bars and submarginal lines on both wing surfaces.

Neptis duryodana is found in West Malaysia, Sumatra, Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah, Kalimantan, Java and Palawan.

Habitats

This species is found in forested habitats at elevations between sea level and about 500 metres. It is found in both primary and secondary forest, frequenting sunlit glades and forest edge habitats.

Lifecycle

The lifecycle appears to be unrecorded but will be similar to that of other Neptis species – the egg will be placed at the very tip of a leaf of the foodplant, on the upper surface. It will be pale green, globular, and covered in a network of hexagonal ridges from which arise 100 or more tiny spikes, giving it the appearance of a tiny sea urchin. The caterpillar will spend it’s early instars hiding in a curled up dead leaf from which it will periodically venture out to feed. The larval foodplants of duryodana are unknown, but in common with other Neptis species it will probably be polyphagous. The chrysalis will resemble a withered leaf, and will be suspended by the cremaster from a leaf or stem on or near the foodplant.

Adult behaviour

Like all Neptis species, this butterfly is best appreciated when on the wing, as it sails gently, riding on thermals, with periods of gliding punctuated by occasional sharp wing beats. The Malay Sailor flies with meticulous precision, gliding in circles as it weaves its way in and out through the foliage and branches.

Both sexes periodically alight to bask on the foliage of trees and bushes, or on the ground. Males sometimes imbibe moisture from damp ground, but like the females they are more often seen nectaring at flowers.

Introduction

The genus Parthenos comprises of 3 species, sylvia, tigrina and aspila. The latter 2 are endemic to Papua New Guinea, while sylvia in comparison has an extremely wide distribution being found in Sri Lanka, India, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, Borneo, Sumatra, the Philippines, Sulawesi, Java, Bali, Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya.

Habitats

This species is found in primary rainforest, usually in the vicinity of rivers, at elevations between sea level and about 300 metres.

Lifecycle

The larva is brown, speckled with white dots, and has broad greenish dorsal and lateral stripes. Each segment bears 4 multi-branched spines, purplish brown at the base and red on the outer half. The larval foodplants include Adenia ( Passifloraceae ) and Tinospora ( Menispermaceae ).

The chrysalis occurs in 2 forms, either pale green or dark olive. It is rather plain in appearance, without protuberances, and is suspended by the cremaster from beneath a leaf.

Adult behaviour

The Clipper is a powerful and fast flying butterfly. The flight consists of short periods of gliding, alternating every few seconds with shallow but rapid flickering wing beats.

On the Kinabatangan river in Borneo I have observed hundreds of these magnificent butterflies circling and gliding around tree tops along several kilometres of the river edge.

Both sexes commonly nectar at Lantana and other flowers. Males will also settle on the ground to imbibe moisture. If disturbed they fly up immediately, circle around at a height of about 3 metres, and then resettle nearby.

Introduction

Horsfield’s Darkie is one of several very similar species in the tribe Miletini, which are characterised by having attractively mottled and striated patterns on their underside wings, a long thin abdomen, a very long proboscis, and erect labial palpi.

The butterfly is elusive but fairly common in the lowland rainforests of peninsular Malaysia, Borneo and Sumatra. Closely related species occur throughout the Oriental region. Some are widespread, while others are endemic to particular islands or restricted altitudinally.

In common with other members of the subfamily Miletinae, this species is entirely aphytophagous, i.e. it feeds carnivorously, parasitically, or on animal by-products.

A great deal remains to be learnt about the ecology of the Miletinae. It is known that the adults and larvae of most species live in association with ants and that most feed parasitically or carnivorously on Homoptera ( aphids, coccids, psyllids and membracids ). It is probable that all Miletinae species are involved in complex 3-way symbiotic relationships with ants and Homoptera.

Habitats

Tropical dipterocarp rainforests at altitudes below about 300 metres. Other related and very similar species can be found at much higher altitudes. In my experience this species is usually found close to rivers, or in seasonally inundated forest.

Lifecycle

The butterflies are continuously brooded and can be found in roughly equal numbers at all times of year.

The eggs are laid amidst clusters of membracids ( tiny aphid-like creatures ). The caterpillars are adorned with rows of spiky humps on the back and sides. Unlike most lepidopteran larvae they do not eat plant matter, but feed parasitically on membracids during their early instars. When older they devour complete membracids. Larvae of the closely related genus Spalgis feed on coccids, while Logania feed on aphids. At least one Allotinus species apries, feeds on coccids when it is tiny. When it reaches the 2nd instar it develops tiny protrusions that are used as grapples by the ant Myrmecaria lutea to carry it to it’s nest – where the larva proceeds to devour the ant grubs. Details of the pupal stage are unknown, but pupation probably takes place within ant nests.

Adult behaviour

The butterflies are sedentary in behaviour, and semi-crepuscular in nature, becoming active just before dusk, although in dull weather conditions they may fly earlier in the day. The flight is weak, and only very short distances are covered.

They are normally encountered solitarily, or in very low numbers, and can be seen at rest on the foliage of bushes in the undergrowth, usually in the darkest recesses of the rainforest. Males perch on foliage at a height of about 1m, and use these vantage points to await passing females. Often 2 or 3 males will be found in close proximity – when males meet they chase each other rapidly back and forth until one or the other submits to bullying and flies away.

In August 2004, when exploring Mulu national park in Sarawak, I found a specimen of Allotinus horsfieldi feeding in company with ants and membracids. The membracids were piercing plant stems to fed on the sap, and were being “milked” by the ants, to obtain a sweet secretion. The butterfly, which was totally ignored by the ants and their “herd”, spent several minutes with it’s long proboscis out-stretched, imbibing the secretion directly from the backs of the membracids.