Introduction

The genus Abisara comprises of 13 recognised species found variously in India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Bhutan, Thailand, West Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, southern China, Laos, Vietnam, the Philippines, Sulawesi and Java. Additionally there are 11 species found in tropical Africa, and also 3 members of a very closely related genus Saribia found in Madagascar.

Most Abisara species have a distinctive stubby or pointed tail on the hindwings, and possess 2 or more prominent ocelli near the apex of the hindwings. The majority have an earthy brown ground colour, although some such as burnii and saturata have a maroon or plum hue which has given rise to the popular name Plum Judy which is often applied to the group as a whole.

Both sexes of neophron are similar in appearance, but the female is slightly paler and has longer tails.

Abisara neophron occurs from northern India to southern China, with the subspecies chelina being found in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, south China and peninsular Malaysia.

Habitats

In common with most Abisara species neophron is found in shady forest habitats, but sometimes ventures into open areas when the weather is overcast. This species appears to be restricted to temperate hill forest and cloudforest habitats at altitudes above 500m, unlike most other members of the genus which are generally found in the lowlands.

Lifecycle

The eggs are pale green, dome-shaped and very shiny. They are laid singly on the upper surface of leaves of the foodplants Myrsinaceae.

The larvae are cylindrical, tapering sharply toward the tail and towards the small yellow head. In the early instars they are yellowish-green and have a slightly translucent skin. When mature they are an opaque pale green colour, plump, and have the body segments clearly defined. At all stages they are sparsely covered with tufts of short white hairs.

The pupa is pale green and slug-like, flattened, and with a pointed tail and a blunt head which has a pair of flattened ear-like protrusions. It is formed on the upper surface of a leaf, and has the appearance of a small gall or blister.

Adult behaviour

This delightful little butterfly is almost always encountered singly, with females being seen more often than males, which suggests that the males spend much of their time high up in trees.

Both sexes are timid in behaviour, flitting nervously from leaf to leaf if approached. Females like to settle high up on bushes, or on the lower branches of trees, where they bask on foliage with their wings held half open. When perched on leaves they tend to constantly twist and turn using a series of jerky movements.

Abisara do not nectar at flowers or imbibe moisture from the ground – from my observations they appear to obtain most if not all of their sustenance from aphid and psyllid secretions ( honeydew ) on the upper surface of leaves.

Introduction

The Malay Red Harlequin is something of an enigma. Butterflies use brilliant colours for a variety of purposes – to attract the attention of potential mates, to advertise their unpalatability, or to confuse, startle or warn avian predators. They tend to occupy sunlit areas where their bright colours can be shown to their best advantage. Not so with this species, which is normally seen only as a silhouette in the shadowy undergrowth, and where it’s flight is so quick and erratic that it is almost impossible to see where it has settled.

The explanation for the striking appearance could be connected to the fact that insects can see well beyond the visible spectrum, into the ultra-violet. In semi darkness the butterfly is almost invisible to mammalian, reptilian or avian eyes, but the distinctive pattern and contrasting colours may reflect a strong ultra-violet trademark that could be essential to enable potential mates to locate each other.

The genus Paralaxita contains 4 species – damajanti, telesia, orphna and dora. There are 2 other closely related genera with very similar species – Laxita, and Taxila. All the species in these 3 genera are confined to Sundaland, the geographical region which encompasses Thailand, peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Palawan and Java.

Paralaxita damajanti occurs in peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.

Habitats

This species occurs in dense rainforest at altitudes between about 200-1200m.

Lifecycle

The early stages appear to be unknown.

Adult behaviour

The butterflies are very difficult to locate, and invariably encountered singly. They are usually seen when accidentally disturbed while the entomologist is hacking through thick undergrowth, at which time they suddenly take flight and resettle a few metres away in darkness, on the surface of a leaf.

Females have a habit of hopping incessantly from leaf to leaf – in Taman Negara I found a female which was working it’s way up and down the leaves of a vine, pausing only for a second on each leaf. This went on for several minutes. Females of many butterflies habitually fly from leaf to leaf “tasting” each leaf with sensors on their feet, trying to locate the correct species of plant on which to lay their eggs. In this case however photographs revealed that the butterfly was imbibing from the surface of the leaves each time it landed, and it seems that the hopping activity is a defence strategy aimed at birds or reptiles which would be unable to react quickly enough to catch the very active butterfly.

This very attractive little butterfly, and its relative emesoides are the only two species in the genus Zemeros.

Zemeros flegyas is a common and widespread butterfly found in India, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Sulawesi and Bali.

Habitats

This species is found in forest edge habitats at elevations between 0-1800m but is most abundant between about 300-1200m.

Lifecycle

The egg is white, smooth, and laid singly on the underside of leaves of the foodplants Maesa chisia and montana ( Myrsinaceae ).The larva is ovoid and very flattened. Each body segment is rounded, giving it a corrugated appearance. It is pale green in all instars, and covered in short setae. The chrysalis is smooth and light green in colour, marked with small suffused dark spots and dashes. It is attached by a silken girdle to the underside of a leaf.

Adult behaviour

This butterfly is usually encountered in one’s and two’s in forest edge habitats, including roadsides and regenerating clearings. There is some evidence of possible lekking behaviour however, e.g. at Chilapata in West Bengal I found a group of 8 worn specimens of flegyas basking close together on foliage, all within an area of less than 1 sq metre. The same 8 individuals were still present at this spot 3 days later. Males sometimes imbibe moisture from the ground, but are usually seen when perched on foliage in their characteristic posture, with wings held half open and with the forewings canted forward.

Introduction

The name Melanis refers to the melanic pigment of the black scales which cover the distinctively shaped wings of all members of this genus. Many Melanis species are marked with orange borders on the hindwings, and / or similarly coloured diagonal bands on the forewings. In some species the apex of the forewings is orange, and in others there are large red spots near the base of the wings.

There are 27 known members in the genus. One particularly attractive species, M. pixe, has a range extending from Mexico to Panama, but the majority of species are found in the Andes mountains, or in the Amazonian lowlands.

Melanis hillapana is found in Brazil, Peru and Bolivia. It can be confused with electron but the latter has a cream band on the forewings replacing the pure white band of hillapana.

Melanis hillapana, Satipo, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

Habitats

This species inhabits pre-montane rainforest and cloudforest at altitudes between about 200-1200m. Melanis hillapana flies throughout the year but is commonest in the early part of the dry season.

Melanis hillapana, Satipo, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

Lifecycle

I have no information specific to hillapana but the lifecycle is likely to be similar to that of other Melanis species : The larvae are hairy, and feed gregariously on the leaves of trees in the family Leguminosae. The pupae are said to be formed in clusters on tree trunks.

Melanis hillapana, Satipo, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

Adult behaviour

Males of this species are usually seen singly or in very low numbers, visiting damp sand or rocks from which they imbibe mineralised moisture. They hold their wings fully or almost fully outspread while feeding. Males of several Melanis species are reported to fly around the canopy of Samanea trees ( Leguminosae ) in search of females. Females nectar at Inga, Cordia and Albizia.

Melanis hillapana, Satipo, Peru – Adrian Hoskins

Introduction

There are more than 1150 species of Riodinidae in the neotropical region, but far fewer elsewhere in the world. Many Riodinids have bands of red or orange, or are peppered with metallic silver, blue or green scales, hence the popular name of metalmarks.

The genus Crocozona comprises of 4 species. Two of these, fasciata and pheretima are marked with broad orange bands on the forewings only. The others – coecias and croceifasciata, have narrower bands on both fore and hindwings.

Crocozona pheretima is endemic to Colombia.

Habitats

This species occurs in disturbed rainforest habitats at elevations between about 200- 1000m. It is typically seen along roadsides, riverbanks, wide forest tracks and other semi-open habitats.

Lifecycle

To be completed.

Adult behaviour

This sun-loving little Riodinid can often be found in two’s and three’s basking on ferns or other low foliage in open, forested habitats. It has a rapid twisting flight that is difficult to follow, but it usually resettles only a short distance from it’s original position.

In very hot weather, or when there is a threat of rain, the butterflies hide beneath the leaves of bushes or low growing herbage, with wings outspread.

Introduction

The genus Caria contains some of the most beautiful and elusive species on Earth. Although fairly common they are rarely seen due to their secretive habits, and are virtually impossible to follow in flight. Once seen these glittering jewels of the Amazon are never forgotten.

Lepidopterists often feel quite overwhelmed by the beauty of these butterflies, but initial feelings of ecstasy are soon replaced by the rapid onset of frustration, anguish, despair and an uncontrollable urge to spend the next 2 hours searching relentlessly in the vicinity of the sighting, peering into bushes, crawling about on the ground and investigating every nook and cranny while muttering and pleading with the butterfly to reveal itself ! Unfortunately they have a habit of settling on mossy boulders or on algae covered ground, where they are superbly camouflaged.

There are about 14 species in the genus Caria, 5 of which are restricted to Central America, while the others including mantinea and sponsa are found primarily in Amazonia and the foothills of the eastern Andes.

Several of the species including mantinea, plutargus, castalia and smaragdina are almost identical on the upperside. Theoretically they can be separated by examining the red markings at the base of the underside forewings. In mantinea ( including C. m. lampeto ) there is a single large red blotch. In castalia and smaragdina the red markings on the underside are entirely absent. The underside markings of plutargus are similar to those of mantinea, but the median green band on the upperside is much broader than in either mantinea, castalia or smaragdina. Another taxon fulvimargo can be distinguished by the presence of thin orange borders on the underside hindwings, while the red markings at the base of its underside forewings are broken into 3 fragments. Lamas classifies fulvimargo as a subspecies of mantinea, but DNA analysis may well prove it to be a full species, as originally classified by Lathy.

Habitats

This species is confined to primary rainforest at altitudes between about 100-800m. It is usually found in the vicinity of rocky or pebble-strewn streams.

Lifecycle

I have no data regarding castalia but the lifecycle is likely to be very similar to that of other Caria species as follows: The eggs are laid singly under the leaves of Ulmaceae or Bromeliaceae. The caterpillars are densely hairy, and live and feed within rolled leaf tubes.

Adult behaviour

The adults probably spend much of their time in the canopy. Freshly emerged males descend on hot sunny mornings at which time they can sometimes be seen imbibing mineralised moisture from sandbanks, peccary wallows or pebble-strewn river beaches. They habitually settle between rocks or within crevices and are exceptionally difficult to locate. They have a rapid and erratic flight which is virtually impossible to follow with the eye. However with practice it is often possible to relocate them once they resettle, as they tend to only cover quite short distances. Usually they settle on the ground, but sometimes they land on foliage, or on a damp sunlit rock or boulder, on which they can very easily be overlooked due to their remarkable resemblance to a patch of wet moss.

The butterflies always bask in the characteristic posture illustrated in the photographs, with the forewings swept back, half covering the hindwings.

Introduction

The sub-family Euselasiinae is confined entirely to the neotropics. There are 172 known species of which 167 are placed in the genus Euselasia. A few are widespread across Amazonia but most are localised and uncommon. The adults are characterised by having large eyes and small palpi. Most species have rounded wings. The uppersides of males are blackish with patches of metallic orange or blue according to species. Females are dull brown above, with patches of whitish or pale brown.

The undersides are variable – in some species such as gelanor, angulata and brevicauda they are pinkish or dull brown, marked with a thin dark median line. Others e.g. teleclus and praeclara are silvery white, marked with feint dark spots. Another group including euriteus, toppini and orfita are much more strongly marked, with broad white bands on a brown or orange ground colour. Most of the species in this latter group also have a prominent dark spot or ocellus on the outer hindwing.

Euselasia bettina is distributed from Nicaragua to Ecuador.

Habitats

This butterfly inhabits cloudforest at elevations between about 500-1800m.

Lifecycle

I have no information regarding bettina. The lifecycle however is probably similar to that of other Euselasia species : The eggs are frustum-shaped. They are laid singly under leaves of Clusiaceae, Melastomataceae, Sapotaceae or Myrtaceae. The caterpillars are compact in form and covered in tufts of short setae. In several species they are gregarious and move in a processionary manner. Unlike members of the Riodininae the larvae of Euselasiinae are not associated with ants.

Adult behaviour

Euselasia males are noted for their habit of spending most of their lives hiding under leaves. Some species such as gelanor and angulata tend to sit under the leaves of low vegetation, while others such as euriteus and bettina tend to settle higher up, under the leaves of trees at heights of between 2-5 metres. Often males of several Euselasia species will occupy a particular tree but each species will settle at a different height and fly at a different time of the morning.

Although they may appear to be hiding, they are in fact ‘perching’ i.e. waiting to ambush any other Euselasia that flies past. If the ambushed butterfly turns out to be another male a short aerial battle takes place after which the intruding male is usually ousted, and the conquering male returns to sit beneath the leaf where he originally perched. Perching males hold their wings erect, but often with the hindwings very slightly apart.

The flight is rapid and erratic. Males are active early in the day, but females fly and oviposit in the afternoon. Both sexes visit flowers and extrafloral nectaries. The butterflies fly throughout the year but are commonest in the late dry season and during drier periods in the rainy season.

Introduction

The sub-family Euselasiinae is confined entirely to the neotropics. There are 172 known species of which 167 are placed in the genus Euselasia. A few are widespread across Amazonia but most are localised and uncommon. The adults are characterised by having large eyes and small palpi. Most species have rounded wings. The uppersides of males are blackish with patches of metallic orange or blue according to species. Females are dull brown above, with patches of whitish or pale brown. In most species the undersides of both sexes are pale, with one or more vertical bands or lines. In several species there is also a dark ocellus near the border of the hindwing.

Euselasia corduena is a small butterfly of about 40mm in wingspan.

This species is found distributed from Costa Rica to Bolivia. There are 2 named subspecies.

Habitats

This species inhabits cloudforest at elevations between about 1000-1800m.

Lifecycle

I have no information specific to corduena but it is likely that the lifecycle is similar to that of other Euselasia species : The eggs are frustum-shaped. They are laid singly under leaves of Clusiaceae, Melastomataceae, Sapotaceae or Myrtaceae. The caterpillars are compact in form and covered in tufts of short setae. In several species they are gregarious and move in a processionary manner. Unlike members of the Riodininae the larvae of Euselasiinae are not associated with ants.

Adult behaviour

The adults tend to spend most of their lives at rest underneath foliage, usually choosing leaves at a height of between 2-5m above ground level. Often males of several Euselasia species will occupy a particular tree but each species will settle at a different height and fly at a different time of day.

Although they may appear to be hiding, they are in fact ‘perching’ i.e. waiting to ambush any other Euselasia that flies past. If the ambushed butterfly turns out to be another male a short aerial battle takes place after which the intruding male is usually ousted, and the conquering male returns to sit beneath the leaf where he originally perched. Perching males hold their wings erect, but often with the hindwings very slightly apart, enabling a glimpse of the metallic upperside.

The flight is rapid and erratic. Males are active early in the day, but females fly and oviposit in the afternoon. Both sexes visit flowers and extrafloral nectaries. The butterflies fly throughout the year but are commonest in the late dry season and during drier periods in the rainy season.

Introduction

The sub-family Euselasiinae is confined entirely to the neotropics. There are 172 known species of which 167 are placed in the genus Euselasia. A few are widespread across Amazonia but most are localised and uncommon. The adults are characterised by having large eyes and small palpi. Most species have rounded wings. The uppersides of males are blackish with patches of metallic orange or blue according to species. Females are dull brown above, with patches of whitish or pale brown.

The undersides are variable – in some species such as gelanor, angulata and brevicauda they are pinkish or dull brown, marked with a thin dark median line. Others e.g. teleclus and praeclara are silvery white, marked with feint dark spots. Another group including euriteus, toppini and orfita are much more strongly marked, with broad white bands on a brown or orange ground colour. Most of the species in this latter group also have a prominent dark spot or ocellus on the outer hindwing.

Most Euselasia species have rounded wings, although the tornus of the hindwing is extended in to a lobe or tail in a few such as thucydides, issoria, euodias and perisama. Only 4 species have angular hindwings – clesa, angulata, eurypus and eubule. There are only two species with sharply angular forewings – the Mexican endemic pontasis, and the Amazonian angulata.

Euselasia angulata is an Amazonian species found in Peru and western Brazil.

Habitats

In common with most other Euselasia species this butterfly inhabits lowland primary rainforests at elevations between about 200-800m.

Lifecycle

I have no information regarding angulata. The lifecycle however is probably similar to that of other Euselasia species : The eggs are frustum-shaped. They are laid singly under leaves of Clusiaceae, Melastomataceae, Sapotaceae or Myrtaceae. The caterpillars are compact in form and covered in tufts of short setae. In several species they are gregarious and move in a processionary manner. Unlike members of the Riodininae the larvae of Euselasiinae are not associated with ants. The pupa is usually positioned on the midrib of the upper surface of a leaf of the foodplant.

Adult behaviour

Euselasia males are noted for their habit of spending most of their lives hiding under leaves. Some species such as gelanor and angulata tend to sit under the leaves of low vegetation, while others such as euriteus and clithra tend to settle higher up, under the leaves of trees at heights of between 2-5 metres. Often males of several Euselasia species will occupy a particular tree but each species will settle at a different height and fly at a different time of the morning.

Although they may appear to be hiding, they are in fact “perching” i.e. waiting to ambush any other Euselasia that flies past. If the ambushed butterfly turns out to be another male a short aerial battle takes place after which the intruding male is usually ousted, and the conquering male returns to sit beneath the leaf where he originally perched. Perching males hold their wings erect, but often with the hindwings very slightly apart, enabling a glimpse of the metallic upperside.

The flight is rapid and erratic. Males are active early in the day, but females fly and oviposit in the afternoon. Both sexes visit flowers and extrafloral nectaries. The butterflies fly throughout the year but are commonest in the late dry season and during drier periods in the rainy season.

Introduction

The sub-family Euselasiinae is confined entirely to the neotropics. There are 172 known species of which 167 are placed in the genus Euselasia. A few are widespread across Amazonia but most are localised and uncommon. The adults are characterised by having large eyes and small palpi. Most species have rounded wings. The uppersides of males are blackish with patches of metallic orange or blue according to species. Females are dull brown above, with patches of whitish or pale brown. In most species the undersides of both sexes are pale, with one or more vertical bands or lines. In several species including orfita there is also a dark ocellus near the border of the hindwing.

Euselasia perisama has a wingspan of about 40mm. There are several other Euselasia species with a similar banded underside, including clithra, orfita and phedica, but only perisama has the beautiful purple-edged red band, and prominent blue ocellus.

Euselasia perisama is endemic to the eastern Andes of Peru.

Habitats

This species inhabits mid-elevation rainforest at elevations between about 300-1200m.

Lifecycle

I have no information specific to perisama but the lifecycle will probably be similar to that of other Euselasia species : The eggs are frustum-shaped and laid singly under the leaves of Sapotaceae, Melastomataceae, Myrtaceae or Clusiaceae. The larvae are compact in form and covered in tufts of short setae. In several species they are gregarious and move in a processionary manner. Unlike members of the subfamily Riodininae the larvae of Euselasiinae are not associated with ants.

Adult behaviour

Euselasia males are noted for their habit of spending most of their lives hiding under leaves. Some species such as gelanor and angulata tend to sit under the leaves of low vegetation, while others such as euriteus and perisama tend to settle higher up, on or under the leaves of trees at heights of between 2-5 metres. Often males of several Euselasia species will occupy a particular tree but each species will settle at a different height and fly at a different time of the morning.

Although they may appear to be hiding, they are in fact “perching” i.e. waiting to ambush any other Euselasia that flies past. If the ambushed butterfly turns out to be another male a short aerial battle takes place after which the intruding male is usually ousted, and the conquering male returns to sit beneath the leaf where he originally perched. Perching males hold their wings erect, but often with the hindwings very slightly apart, enabling a glimpse of the metallic upperside.

The flight is rapid and erratic. Males are active early in the day, but females fly and oviposit in the afternoon. Both sexes visit flowers and extrafloral nectaries. The butterflies fly throughout the year but are commonest in the late dry season and during drier periods in the rainy season.