Introduction

The Grass Yellows are all fairly small butterflies, readily recognised by their bright yellow wings and their habit of gathering in small groups on patches of damp sand or soil. Despite their name, none of their caterpillars feed on grasses – the name is derived from the fact that most species are found in disturbed grassy habitats.

Eurema are among the most familiar of tropical butterflies. There are 70 known species worldwide, of which 36 are found in the Neotropical region, 13 in North America, 10 in Africa, 25 in the Oriental region and 10 in Australia / Papua New Guinea. Many are migratory in behaviour and the ranges of several such as hecabe overlap into in 2 or more of the zoogeographical regions.

Eurema alitha has 13 subspecies, found variously in the Philippines, Palawan, n. Borneo, Sulawesi, Java, Bali, Timor, West Irian, Papua New Guinea and most of the islands of the South Pacific. In Australia it occurs in Northern Territory, Western Australia and Queensland.

Habitats

This species inhabits open or disturbed grassy areas including forest clearings at elevations between sea level and about 1000m.

Lifecycle

The egg is skittle-shaped and cream in colour. It is laid singly on the upper surface of leaves of the foodplants. The larva when fully grown is bluish-green above the pale spiracular line and dark green below it. The upper half of each segment is banded with dozens of tiny tubercles from which arise short setae. The larval foodplant in Indonesia and the Philippines is Albizia. In Australia only Glycine (Fabaceae) is used. The pupa is pale green and unmarked. It is formed on a stem of the foodplant or another nearby plant and is attached by the cremaster and a silk girdle.

Adult behaviour

To be completed.

Introduction

The genus Cepora is closely allied to Appias and comprises of 20 species. The commonest and most widespread species is nerissa which is distributed from India to Bali. The genus is centred on south-east Asia, with the majority of species being found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.

Cepora perimale is the only species found in Australia – it occurs throughout northern and eastern Australia, and on New Guinea and the islands of the Torres Strait.

Habitats

This species is found on grassland and scrub and in open forested areas at elevations between sea level and about 500m.

Lifecycle

The eggs are skittle-shaped with prominent vertical ribs, and are creamy yellow when first laid but gradually turn to orange before hatching. They are laid singly or in two’s or three’s at the leaf-tips of various Capparis species (Capparaceae). The larva is yellowish-green and is dotted with numerous tiny yellow raised tubercles. When not feeding it rests along the midrib of the upperside of a leaf.

Adult behaviour

The adults are highly mobile and fly constantly from flower to flower, but usually remain in the same area for a day or two.

Introduction

The genus Elodina comprises of about 25 species, found variously in Australia, New Guinea and the islands of the South Pacific. There are 7 species in Australia, all members of the walkeri subgroup.

All Elodina species are very similar in appearance, with pearly white wings and a black apex. Most species have greyish shading along the basal area of the costa.

Elodina walkeri is found in Arnhem Land and Cape York in the north of Australia.

Habitats

This species inhabits open forested areas at elevations between about 100-1000m.

Lifecycle

The egg is creamy white and is laid singly on leaves of wild orange Capparis ( Capparaceae ). The larva is pale green with a thin white dorsal stripe, and is covered with tiny warts from which arise short setae. The pupa is pale green with a white lateral line and a white line along the dorsal keel. It is attached vertically to a twig or stem by the cremaster and a silk girdle.

Adult behaviour

Both sexes have a slow delicate flight. They visit a wide range of herbaceous flowers, and often bask on leaves, with their wings held half open.

Introduction

There are about 225 described species in the genus Delias. The butterflies are popularly known as Jezebels. Most species are white or greyish on the upperside, with blackish margins and apexes. On the underside they are gaudily patterned in red, yellow, black and white – the colours serving to advertise their unpalateable nature to would-be predators.

Many of the species are highly localised, being endemic to particular islands in south-east Asia, or restricted to certain mountain ranges, e.g. in New Guinea. Others occupy much broader ecological niches, and are more generally distributed.

Delias nigrina is found along the eastern side of the Great Dividing Range in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria.

Habitats

This species inhabits open forested areas at elevations between sea level and about 1000m.

Lifecycle

The eggs are yellow and laid in clusters on leaves of the foodplants. The caterpillars are dark green with 2 dorsal rows of yellow spots, from which arise long white setae. They feed gregariously on the foliage of mistletoes Amyema, Dendrophthoe and Muellerina ( Loranthaceae ). The pupa is glossy orange with long black curved spines, and long white head horns, giving the impression of a fungal growth. It is attached to the upper surface of a leaf, on the midrib, and attached by the cremaster and a silken girdle.

Adult behaviour

Males can sometimes be found imbibing moisture at the edges of streams. Both sexes very mobile and are more often seen in flight then settled. They tend to pause for a few seconds to nectar at a flowering bush, strongly favouring Lantana, and often visit several plants within a small area before moving elsewhere.

Introduction

The genus Anaphaeis is closely allied to Belenois and is included as a subgenus of Belenois by some workers. The species placed in this group include the Madagascan taxa antsianaka, grandidieri and mabella; anomala from Socotra island; the pan-African creona and occidentalius; the widespread aurota which occurs across Africa, Arabia and the India subcontinent; and java which is distributed from Java and Sulawesi to New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, Fiji and Australia.

Habitats

This species inhabits open scrubby areas where the larval foodplants flourish.

Lifecycle

The eggs are skittle-shaped with vertical ribbing, and are orange-yellow in colour. They are laid on the upper surface of leaves, with between 40-60 widely spaced eggs in a cluster. The larvae feed on Apophyllum and various Capparis species ( Capparaceae ). The fully grown larva is long, thin and cylindrical, dark purplish brown in colour, and dotted with small yellow tubercles. The pupa is pale straw with small black blotches and yellow tubercles. It is usually formed on the upperside of a leaf, fixed by the cremaster and a silken girdle.

Adult behaviour

Males often gather at patches of damp ground to imbibe mineralised moisture. Both sexes visit a wide range of flowers for nectar. This species is frequently takes part in mass migrations. It appears that males and females migrate separately as roosting aggregations comprising entirely of males have been recorded e.g. in October 2000 at Point Addis in Victoria. An alternative explanation could be that both sexes migrate together but that males considerably outnumber females, although this does not appear to be borne out in captive rearing.

Introduction

The genus Eurema was until fairly recently represented in the neotropics by about 30 species, but several have now been reclassified as Pyrisitia, leaving a total of 19 currently recognised species in the neotropical region. Elsewhere in the world the genus has 9 species in Africa, 2 in Madagascar, and 9 in the Oriental and Australian regions.

These smallish butterflies are characterised by having yellow or white uppersides, with dark apical markings. The forewings have a strongly curved costa and a squarish apex. The hindwings are rounded in most species, but in salome, xantochlora and arbela the termen is projected to a point.

The various species can be told apart by the pattern of mottled dark markings on the underside hindwings, and by the black borders on the upperside forewings, which differ according to species.

Eurema paulina is found in Ecuador, Peru and the upper Amazonian region of Brazil.

Habitats

This species is found in disturbed areas of rainforest including roadsides, clearings, glades and river beaches. It occurs at altitudes between about 200-1400m.

Lifecycle

Unknown. Other Eurema species oviposit on Mimosaceae, Caesalpinaceae, Simaroubaceae and Fabaceae. The eggs are usually laid singly, on the underside of the leaves. Eurema caterpillars are typically dull green, with a whitish line along the sides, and a rough texture. The pupae are typically pale green or yellowish, and have a prominent keel.

Adult behaviour

Males are usually encountered singly, or occasionally in two’s or three’s, when imbibing dissolved minerals from river beaches, seepages and roadsides in forested areas. Females are more often seen nectaring at flowers along roadsides and riverbanks. The flight is fluttery but fairly rapid, and always close to the ground.

Introduction

The 12 species which are currently placed in the genus Pyrisitia were originally included within the pan-tropical genus Eurema.

These smallish butterflies are characterised by having yellow, orange or white uppersides, with dark apical markings. The forewings have a strongly curved costa, and in most species have a squarish apex. The hindwings are rounded in most species.

Pyrisitia venusta is found from Costa Rica to Colombia, east to Guyana and south to Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina. It also occurs on Jamaica, the Dominican Republic and Trinidad.

Habitats

This is a lowland species found in disturbed grassy habitats including forest clearings, roadsides and riverbanks at elevations between sea level and about 1000m.

Lifecycle

To be completed.

Adult behaviour

Males are usually encountered singly, or occasionally in two’s or three’s, when imbibing dissolved minerals from damp ground at the edge of ditches or roadside banks in lightly forested areas.

Females are often seen nectaring at flowers along roadsides and riverbanks, or exploring sunny wood edge habitats in search of egg-laying sites.

The flight is fluttery but fairly rapid, and close to the ground.

Introduction

The 12 species which are currently placed in the genus Pyrisitia were originally included within the pan-tropical genus Eurema.

These smallish butterflies are characterised by having yellow, orange or white uppersides, with dark apical markings. The forewings have a strongly curved costa, and in most species have a squarish apex. The hindwings are rounded in most species, but are projected to a point in proterpia, and in the related Eurema species mexicana, xantochlora, arbela and salome.

Pyrisitia proterpia is found from the southern states of the USA to Peru, and on the islands of Cuba, Jamaica and Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea.

Habitats

This species can be found in disturbed open grassy habitats including forest clearings, roadsides and riverbanks at elevations between sea level and about 1200m.

Lifecycle

The larval foodplant is Desmodium (Fabaceae).

Adult behaviour

Males are usually encountered in two’s or three’s, imbibing dissolved minerals from damp ground at the edge of ditches or roadside banks in lightly forested areas. Females are often seen nectaring at flowers along roadsides and riverbanks, or exploring sunny wood edge habitats in search of egg-laying sites. In the north of its range the butterfly is more abundant at the beginning of the rainy season when nectar sources are prolific; but in Amazonia it is commoner in the dry season.

The flight is fluttery but fairly rapid, and close to the ground.

Introduction

The genus Eurema was until fairly recently represented in the neotropics by about 30 species, but several have now been reclassified as Pyrisitia, leaving a total of 19 currently recognised species in the neotropical region. Elsewhere in the world the genus has 9 species in Africa, 2 in Madagascar, and 9 in the Oriental and Australian regions.

These smallish butterflies are characterised by having yellow or white uppersides, with dark apical markings. The forewings have a strongly curved costa and a squarish apex. The hindwings are rounded in most species, but in salome, xantochlora and arbela the termen is projected to a point.

The various species can be told apart by the pattern of mottled dark markings on the underside hindwings, and by the black borders on the upperside forewings, which differ according to species.

Eurema salome is variable regarding the width of the black borders on the upperside, and in the extent of the brownish mottling on the underside hindwings. There are 6 named subspecies, found variously from Mexico to Peru. The illustrated race is Eurema salome salome, which occurs in the eastern Andes of Peru and Ecuador.

Habitats

This is a pre-montane cloudforest species, occurring along roadsides, riverbanks and forest edge habitats at elevations between about 300-2000m.

Lifecycle

The eggs have only been recorded on Fabaceae. Other Eurema species oviposit on Mimosaceae, Caesalpinaceae and Simaroubaceae, as well as Fabaceae, so it is possible that these families could be utilised also by salome. The eggs are laid singly on the underside of the leaves.

Eurema larvae are typically dull green, with a whitish line along the sides, and a rough texture. The pupae of Eurema are typically pale green or yellowish, and have a prominent keel, but I have no data specific to salome.

Adult behaviour

Males are usually encountered singly, or occasionally in two’s or three’s, seen imbibing dissolved minerals from damp ground at the edge of ditches, runnels or roadside banks in forested areas.

Females are more often seen nectaring at flowers along roadsides and riverbanks, or when exploring sunny wood edge habitats in search of egg-laying sites.

The flight is fluttery but fairly rapid, and always close to the ground.

Introduction

The genus Eurema was until fairly recently represented in the neotropics by about 30 species, but several have now been reclassified as Pyrisitia, leaving a total of 19 currently recognised species in the neotropical region. Elsewhere in the world the genus has 9 species in Africa, 2 in Madagascar, and 9 in the Oriental and Australian regions.

These smallish butterflies are characterised by having yellow or white uppersides, with dark apical markings. The forewings have a strongly curved costa and a squarish apex. The hindwings are rounded in most species, but in salome, xantochlora and arbela the termen is projected to a point.

The various species can be told apart by the pattern of mottled dark markings on the underside hindwings, and by the black borders on the upperside forewings, which differ according to species.

Eurema arbela is found from Mexico to Bolivia.

This species was previously known as Eurema boisduvaliana, hence the common name.

Habitats

This is a pre-montane cloudforest species, occurring along roadsides, riverbanks and forest edge habitats at elevations between about 400-2000m.

Lifecycle

To be completed.

Adult behaviour

Males are usually encountered singly, or occasionally in two’s or three’s, seen imbibing dissolved minerals from damp ground at the edge of ditches, runnels or roadside banks in forested areas.

Females are more often seen nectaring at flowers along roadsides and riverbanks, or when exploring sunny wood edge habitats in search of egg-laying sites.

The flight is fluttery but fairly rapid, and always close to the ground.