Introduction

The genus Ornithoptera (regarded by some authors as a subgenus of Troides) comprises of some of the largest and most magnificent butterflies on Earth. There are 13 species, the commonest and most widespread of which is priamus which is found in the Moluccas, West Irian, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon islands and northern Australia.

The female of the Alexandra Birdwing Ornithoptera alexandrae is the largest butterfly in the world, with a wingspan in excess of 30cms (12″). The British Natural History Museum contains the original specimen of this species which was shot (!) down from a tree and bears the evidence in the form of several holes in the badly damaged wings.

Another famous species is Ornithoptera croesus, a creature so stunningly beautiful that it inspired the legendary explorer and naturalist Alfred Russell Wallace to write the following:

“During my very first walk into the forest at Batchian, I had seen sitting on a leaf out of reach, an immense butterfly of a dark colour marked with white and yellow spots. I could not capture it as it flew away high up into the forest, but I at once saw that it was a female of a new species of Ornithoptera or “bird-winged butterfly,” the pride of the Eastern tropics.I was very anxious to get it and to find the male, which in this genus is always of extreme beauty. During the two succeeding months I only saw it once again, and shortly afterwards I saw the male flying high in the air at the mining village. I had begun to despair of ever getting a specimen as it seemed so rare and wild; till one day, about the beginning of January, I found a beautiful shrub with large white leafy bracts and yellow flowers, a species of Mussaenda, and saw one of these noble insects hovering over it, but it was too quick for me, and flew away.The next day I went again to the same shrub and succeeded in catching a female, and the day after a fine male. I found it to be as I had expected, a perfectly new and most magnificent species, and one of the most gorgeously coloured butterflies in the world. Fine specimens of the male are more than seven inches across the wings, which are velvety black and fiery orange, the latter colour replacing the green of the allied species.The beauty and brilliancy of this insect are indescribable, and none but a naturalist can understand the intense excitement I experienced when I at length captured it. On taking it out of my net and opening the glorious wings, my heart began to beat violently, the blood rushed to my head, and I felt much more like fainting than I have done when in apprehension of immediate death. I had a headache the rest of the day, so great was the excitement produced by what will appear to most people a very inadequate cause.”

Ornithoptera alexandrae is endemic to Papua New Guinea.

Habitats

This species is the rarest of the Ornithoptera species. It is confined to a tiny area of the Popondetta valley in Papua New Guinea, where past volcanic events laid down rich phosphates that enabled the larval foodplants of alexandrae – the vines Pararistolochia dielsiana and P. schlecteri to flourish.

Ornithoptera alexandrae is under continual threat from encroaching oil palm plantations. Another major threat is illegal butterfly collecting, as this species can trade on the black market for as much as USD15,000 per pair.

Lifecycle

Females lay a total of between 20-30 eggs in their lifetime. The eggs are blue and are laid singly on leaves of the foodplants. The fully grown larva is black with long curved thorn-like tubercles. These are bright red, apart from a central pair which are cream in colour. The huge chrysalis is green at first, later turning brown, and finally yellow as the body colour of the adult butterfly develops within. It looks remarkably like a twisted leaf, and is attached vertically to a stem or to the underside of a large leaf, supported by a long silken girdle. The adults emerge in early morning and take about an hour to fully expand and dry their wings. They live for about 3 months.

Adult behaviour

Males patrol through their forest territories each morning, searching the undergrowth for freshly emerged virgin females. They aggressively defend their domain from other intruding males, and will even chase away quite large birds. When a female is located the male hovers above her, releasing pheromones which are wafted over her to induce copulation. The pair remain joined for about 2 hours after which the female incubates the eggs for 2 or 3 days before looking for oviposition sites. Thereafter both sexes fly in the mornings and again in late afternoon. They nectar at Hibiscus, Mussaenda and other flowers which are large enough to support their weight. Nevertheless these butterflies which can weigh as much as 12 grams have to constantly flutter their wings to maintain their position over the flowers while nectaring.

Introduction

The genus Ornithoptera (regarded by some authors as a subgenus of Troides) comprises of some of the largest and most magnificent butterflies on Earth. There are 13 species, including the Queen Alexandra Birdwing alexandrae, the female of which is the largest butterfly in the world, with a wing span of up to 20cms (8″). The commonest and most widespread species is priamus which is found in the Moluccas, New Guinea, the Solomon islands and northern Australia.

Another famous species is Ornithoptera croesus, a creature so stunningly beautiful that it inspired the legendary explorer and naturalist Alfred Russell Wallace to write the following:

“During my very first walk into the forest at Batchian, I had seen sitting on a leaf out of reach, an immense butterfly of a dark colour marked with white and yellow spots. I could not capture it as it flew away high up into the forest, but I at once saw that it was a female of a new species of Ornithoptera or “bird-winged butterfly,” the pride of the Eastern tropics.I was very anxious to get it and to find the male, which in this genus is always of extreme beauty. During the two succeeding months I only saw it once again, and shortly afterwards I saw the male flying high in the air at the mining village. I had begun to despair of ever getting a specimen as it seemed so rare and wild; till one day, about the beginning of January, I found a beautiful shrub with large white leafy bracts and yellow flowers, a species of Mussaenda, and saw one of these noble insects hovering over it, but it was too quick for me, and flew away.The next day I went again to the same shrub and succeeded in catching a female, and the day after a fine male. I found it to be as I had expected, a perfectly new and most magnificent species, and one of the most gorgeously coloured butterflies in the world. Fine specimens of the male are more than seven inches across the wings, which are velvety black and fiery orange, the latter colour replacing the green of the allied species.The beauty and brilliancy of this insect are indescribable, and none but a naturalist can understand the intense excitement I experienced when I at length captured it. On taking it out of my net and opening the glorious wings, my heart began to beat violently, the blood rushed to my head, and I felt much more like fainting than I have done when in apprehension of immediate death. I had a headache the rest of the day, so great was the excitement produced by what will appear to most people a very inadequate cause.”

Ornithoptera tithonus is endemic to Irian Jaya (the western half of New Guinea).

Habitats

This species breeds in primary rainforest in valleys of the Arfak mountains in Irian Jaya.

Lifecycle

To be completed.

Adult behaviour

Ornithoptera tithonus and related birdwing species breed in the valleys of the Arfak mountains, but both sexes “hill-top” at the ridges between the valleys, where courtship and copulation take place. The butterflies are highly prized by butterfly collectors, and are caught by native Papuan hunters, who spread out large sheets of red cloth to lure the butterflies to the ground. At a typical collecting spot, an Ornithoptera species descends to the red cloth about once every 10 minutes.

Introduction

The genus Cressida comprises of a single species which is endemic to the Australian region. It has several unusual characteristics. The antennae for example are straight, not recurved as they are in all other Papilioninae. Less obvious is the fact that the female has an abdominal pouch (sphragis) which projects after fertilization and prevents further her from mating with other males. This feature is only found elsewhere only in the primitive neotropical genus Euryades, and in the Parnassiinae.

Cressida cressida is found in eastern Australia, Papua New Guinea and the Torres Strait islands.

Habitats

This species inhabits open lightly wooded areas at elevations between sea level and about 500m.

Lifecycle

The egg is deep yellow, dome shaped and adorned with numerous raised orange tubercles. It is laid singly on Aristolochia (Aristolochiaceae). When fully grown the caterpillar is maroon with creamy markings and short lateral and dorsal tubercles, some of which are cream while some are maroon. When ready to pupate they leave the foodplant and walk with a jerky movement, covering quite long distances in a series of short rapid bursts.

Adult behaviour

Males establish territories and patrol regularly back and forth across them in search of females.

Introduction

Back in the 18th century when Linnaeus created the System Naturae, the word Papilio was used as the genus name for every known species of butterfly in the world. Since then much has been learnt about the relationships between different species. Consequently most have been reassigned to new genera, and only about 215 of the 17600 currently known species are retained in Papilio. There are 6 Papilio species in Australia, plus another 11 species from other genera of Papilioninae.

Papilio anactus is endemic to Australia and is distributed from Cairns to Victoria and South Australia.

Habitats

This species naturally inhabits forest glades and clearings but has also become a pest of cultivated Citrus in orchards. It occurs at elevations between sea level and about 1500m.

Lifecycle

The pale yellow spherical egg is laid singly on Citrus, Eremocitrus and Microcitrus ( Rutaceae ). The fully grown caterpillar is bluish-black peppered with tiny white dots. It has large yellow heart-shaped spots along the back and sides. The pupa is pale brown and is attached vertically to a stem.

Adult behaviour

Both sexes have a slow lazy flight and patrol back and forth on a regular route along forest tracks.

Introduction

The genus Graphium is widespread in the Old World, with 35 species in the Afrotropical region, 14 in the Oriental region, 6 in the Holarctic ( south & west China ) and 20 in the Australian region.

Most of the Oriental and Australasian species are characterised by the presence of a pattern of translucent green, turquoise or yellowish “windows” in their wings. There are a few however such as aristeus from New Guinea and the Oriental species euphrates which are predominantly white, marked with vertical black stripes. Arguably the most beautiful and unusual of all is weiskei from Papua, a tailed species patterned with vivid pink and green on a dark brown ground colour.

Graphium macleayanus is endemic to eastern Australia, being found from Queensland to Tasmania.

Habitats

This species is found in forest edge habitats including rainforest clearings and glades, deciduous woodland, parks and gardens. In tropical Queensland it is primarily a mountain butterfly, but in New South Wales and Tasmania it can be found commonly down to sea level.

Lifecycle

The pale green, globular eggs are laid singly on leaves and young shoots of the larval foodplants, which include Doryphora and Atherosperma ( Atherospermataceae ), Cinnamomum ( Lauraceae ), Geijera ( Rutaceae ), and Drimys ( Winteraceae ).

The fully grown caterpillar is pale green with faint whitish spots. It is humped at the thorax, which carries a pair of short tubercules at the widest point. The body tapers towards the head and tail. As with all Papilioninae, there is an extrusible soft fleshy orange-coloured organ behind the head, which emits foul-smelling odours as a means of defence against predators and parasitoids.

Adult behaviour

Males commonly imbibe mineralised moisture from bare ground, especially in stony or rocky areas. Females seem to be much scarcer than males, and are usually only encountered when they nectar at the flowers of trees, bushes or herbaceous plants.

Sometimes on hot mornings large numbers of males, and much lower numbers of females, can be found “hill-topping”, i.e. gathering at what is effectively a lek, on a hilltop or mountain ridge. This behaviour is common among the Papilionidae and other butterfly families. It enables low density forest-dwelling species which would otherwise have difficulty in locating mates, to home in on a meeting place.

At these hill-topping sites, males set up individual territories which they defend against all comers, including bees, flies and other butterfly species. Aerial combats between rival males are aggressive but usually short-lived, with the original “owner” of the territory generally successfully driving off the intruder. When an already-mated female is intercepted by a male, she drops instantly to the ground, opens her wings and raises her abdomen to indicate that she is unavailable for copulation, at which point the male quickly loses interest. If a virgin females is intercepted, she is chased by the male, rising and falling as she flies, with the male mirroring her every movement, until they disappear from view, presumably to copulate.

Introduction

The magnificent Rajah Brooke’s Birdwing was discovered on Borneo in 1855 by the legendary explorer and naturalist Alfred Russell Wallace. It is widely distributed throughout Borneo, Sumatra, Palawan and the central states of West Malaysia, and in a few areas is very abundant, but populations are quite localised. It also occurs as a scarce species in Thailand.

Sadly the butterflies are killed in vast numbers, mainly by Orang Asli children, paid a pittance for the dead specimens by dealers who sell them on to gift shops. The majority are badly damaged because the children are unskilled with butterfly nets, and often use crude methods of killing – sometimes the butterflies are attracted to a sticky “bait” which glues their wings to the ground, or sometimes they are killed by throwing small stones at them.

The subspecies trogon, which occurs on peninsular Malaysia in Johore state, and also on Sumatra and Palawan, differs slightly in appearance and behaviour from albescens, and is considered to be a separate species by some taxonomists.

Habitats

In West Malaysia the butterfly occurs in tropical rainforest habitats at altitudes from sea level to about 800 metres. From personal observations I believe the butterflies breed mainly at altitudes above 300 metres, but that the males are more often encountered at much lower elevations, when they descend to imbibe mineralised moisture from seepages or sulphur springs. At Ulu Gerok in Perak for example they occur commonly in oil palm plantations where the larval foodplants are absent, although they are found in greater numbers in the relatively untouched hill forests above. Females are rarely seen, and probably spend most of their lives in the tree tops.

Lifecycle

The globular reddish eggs are laid singly on the leaves of climbing vines of the genus Aristolochia.

The fully grown caterpillar is dark greyish brown, with a light grey saddle mark on the back. The body is adorned with buff and grey tubercles along the back and sides. As with other members of the Papilionidae the larva is equipped with an eversible forked structure ( osmaterium ) behind the head, which secretes a pungent fluid that deters ants, wasps and other predators.

The pupa is apple green, marked with violet, and is attached vertically by the cremaster and a silk girdle, to a vine stem.

Adult behaviour

The butterflies are powerful flyers, capable of travelling from one side of a river to the other with no more than 3 or 4 wing-beats.

Males congregate at hot sulphur springs, seepages and other sources of minerals. They glide slowly in tight circles when about to settle, spiralling gracefully down to the ground. Immediately after alighting the butterflies nervously flutter their wings for a few seconds but soon settle with the wings outspread, always with the forewings swept back, half covering the hindwings. This “mud-puddling” behaviour occurs throughout the day, and often continues until dusk.

In Sabah the butterflies once assembled in vast numbers at Poring hot springs, but most of the area where the butterflies congregated has now been built on. In the Danum valley of Sabah I have often seen them in the company of Graphium sarpedon visiting the flowers of Bauhinia trees. They also visit Mussaenda bushes, and I have observed them nectaring at Lantana in Perak, West Malaysia. On Palawan and Sumatra males apparently do not congregate, and are only rarely seen at sulphur springs, preferring instead to obtain their sustenance exclusively from the flowers of forest trees.

Females are much scarcer than males. My various visits to peninsular Malaysia and Borneo have enabled me to see upwards of 1500 males in total, but only 2 females, one seen in flight across a river at about 200 metres altitude, the other flying high in trees near a waterfall at about 400m. Some authors postulate that males outnumber females by a ratio of as high as 200:1, but it is more likely that the sexes occur in approximately equal numbers, but that the males due to their habits are far more visible.

The genus Graphium is widespread in the Old World, with 35 species in the Afrotropical region, 14 in the Oriental region, 6 in the Holarctic (south & west China), and 20 in the Australian region.

Almost all of the Oriental and Australasian species are characterized by the presence of a pattern of translucent green, turquoise, or yellowish ‘windows’ in their wings. Arguably the most beautiful and unusual of all the Graphium species is weiskei from Papua, which is patterned with vivid pink and green on a dark brown ground color. There are several species, however, such as antiphates and aristeus which have pure white uppersides, marked with prominent vertical black stripes. A few, including antiphates, aristeus, and the African policenes, have very long sword-like tails. Some of the Oriental species, e.g., codrus, cloanthus, and certain races of agamemnon, have short tails, but in others including sarpedon, doson, and eurypylus the tails are greatly reduced or absent.

Graphium sarpedon is the most widespread and common of the Oriental species, found from India and Sri Lanka to China and Japan; and from Malaya to Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, Bali, New Guinea, eastern Australia, and the Solomon Islands.

Habitats

This species occurs in almost all forested habitats at altitudes between 0-1400m but is much more abundant at lower altitudes.

Lifecycle

The eggs are spherical, yellowish, and laid singly on the younger more tender leaves of the larval foodplants, often on saplings or sucker growth around the base of the trees.

The foodplants used vary according to country and location and include Beilschmiedia, Endiandra, Cryptocarya, Cinnamomum, Litsea, Neolitsea (Lauraceae), Annona, Melodorum (Annonaceae), Planchonella (Sapotaceae), and Doryphora (Atherospermataceae).

The fully grown larva is dull green in color, dappled with yellow and darker green, and has a thin cream lateral stripe. On each of the thoracic segments, there is a pair of short black spikes, those on the 3rd segment being connected by a prominent yellow band. There is also a pair of very short white spikes on the anal segment.

The wedge-shaped chrysalis is pale green with pale lateral and dorsal stripes which converge at the tip of the thoracic horn. It is attached vertically by the cremaster and a silken girdle to a stem or to the underside of a leaf.

Adult behaviour

Graphium species are generally more robust than their relatives in Papilio and have a stronger and more purposeful flight. Graphium sarpedon, in particular, is noted for its agility and speed in flight.

Prior to mating, both sexes can often be seen circling around the tops of flowering trees, using these as assembly points where courtship takes place.

After mating, males visit damp sand and gravel to obtain essential minerals to replace those lost during sperm transfer. In Malaysia and India males often aggregate with other Graphium species such as doson and antiphates, in groups of up to 50. These aggregations are much less common in Sri Lanka, where mud-puddling males are usually seen singly or in groups of no more than 5 or 6.

As with other Graphium species, sarpedon males adopt the ‘filter-feeding’ technique – using their proboscises to continually suck up water from which they extract sodium and other minerals. They constantly pump the water through their bodies, expelling the surplus from the anus, and using it to dissolve further minerals from the ground, which they re-imbibe.

When feeding on the ground, the wings are normally held erect but kept constantly quivering. It is common to find that almost all the butterflies in an aggregation face in the same direction – into the wind. The wing shape, translucent ‘windows’ and posture of the aggregating butterflies conjure up an image of a flotilla of tiny green sailboards.

The genus Graphium is widespread in the Old World, with 35 species in the Afrotropical region, 14 in the Oriental region, 6 in the Holarctic ( south & west China ) and 20 in the Australian region.

Most of the Oriental and Australasian species are characterised by the presence of a pattern of translucent green, turquoise or yellowish “windows” in their wings. There are a few however such as aristeus from New Guinea and the Oriental species euphrates which are predominantly white, marked with vertical black stripes. Arguably the most beautiful and unusual of all is weiskei from Papua, a tailed species patterned with vivid pink and green on a dark brown ground colour.

Several Graphium species such as the African policenes have very long sword-like tails. Some of the Oriental species e.g. codrus, cloanthus and certain races of agamemnon have short tails, but in others including sarpedon, doson and eurypylus the tails are greatly reduced or absent.

Graphium agamemnon is one of the most widespread species in the genus, being found from India and Sri Lanka to Hong Kong, and through the archipelago to Papua New Guinea, Queensland and the Solomon Islands.

Habitats

This species is found in open habitats including forest clearings, riverbanks and beach hinterlands, at elevations between sea level and about 500m.

Lifecycle

The smooth, spherical, pale green eggs are laid singly on the upperside of young leaves of sapling trees in the family Annonaceae. Species used include Ancana, Annona, Cyathostemma, Desmos, Fitzalania, Friesodeilsia, Goniothalamus, Haplostichanthus, Melodorum, Mitrephora, Oncodostigma, Pseuduvaria, Rauwenhoffia, Rollinia, Saccopetalum, Uvaria and Xylopia. Larvae have also been found on Michelia ( Magnoliaceae ) and Cinnamomum ( Lauraceae ).

When young the caterpillar is ochreous-brown, with a white saddle on the rear segments. The anal segment and each of the thoracic segments is adorned with a pair of short multi-branches spines. Throughout its life the caterpillar habitually rests on the upperside of a leaf, along the midrib, and feeds by nibbling large chunks from the tip of the leaf, but leaving the midrib intact.

The mature caterpillar is plump, mid green in colour, with small suffused blotches of darker green. The spines by this stage are much reduced, becoming nothing more than a set of tiny black spikes.

The chrysalis is pale green or light brown, with a brown-tipped thoracic horn. It is attached by the cremaster and a silken girdle to the underside of a leaf.

Adult behaviour

Graphium species are generally more robust than their relatives in Papilio, and have a stronger and more purposeful flight.

They commonly nectar at flowering bushes, particularly favouring Lantana. Prior to mating they can often be seen circling around the tops of flowering trees, where courtship takes place. After mating, males visit damp sand and gravel to obtain essential minerals to replace those lost during sperm transfer. G. agamemnon however does not visit sandbanks or river beaches in such numbers as its relative sarpedon – a typical aggregation might for example consist of 50 sarpedon, 20 doson and just 1 or 2 agamemnon.

In common with the other aforementioned Graphium species, agamemnon males adopt the ‘filter-feeding’ technique – using their proboscises to continually suck up water from which they extract sodium and other minerals. They constantly pump the water through their bodies, expelling the surplus from the anus, using it to dissolve further minerals from the ground, which they re-imbibe.

Late on sunny afternoons, when temperatures drop, males often bask on bushes, with their wings fully outspread. A short while later they go to roost, usually at the top of a sapling tree.

Introduction

The Dragontails ( Lamproptera ) are among the most delightful and entertaining butterflies in the Oriental region, being much smaller in size than other Papilionidae, and unique among them in having completely transparent “windows” in the forewings, and very long tails on the hindwings.

They are members of the Leptocircini, a tribe which also includes the Oriental genera Graphium and Pathysa, the neotropical genera Protesilaus and Eurytides, and the European Scarce Swallowtail Iphiclides podalirius.

There are only 2 species in the genus Lamproptera, i.e. meges and curius, both of which are found in Assam, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, southern China, the Philippines, peninsular Malaysia and Borneo. The range of meges extends further south and east, to include Sulawesi and Java.

Lamproptera meges is the commoner of the 2 species. It is known as the Green Dragontail because the upperside hindwing has a pale green band, and the butterfly has a distinct greenish hue when seen in flight. The other species curius is rarer and has a white band on the upperside hindwing. Also, unlike meges, it has a tuft of long white androconial scales in the dorsal fold of the upperside hindwings.

Habitats

Lamproptera meges breeds in wet tropical and subtropical rainforests at altitudes between about 100-1000m. It is always found in association with rivers, streams or waterfalls.

Lifecycle

The larva feeds on Illigera ( Hernandiaceae ), and is dark green, speckled with black spots. The pupa is attached by the cremaster to the upper surface of a leaf.

Adult behaviour

Dragontails are usually encountered singly or in two’s and three’s. Compared to other members of the Papilionidae they have a much smaller wing area in relation to their body size, so whereas most Swallowtails and Birdwings have a very distinct fluttering flight, Dragontails are able to beat their wings much faster, and can dart from spot to spot very rapidly.

They have a very fast whirring flight, and use their long tails as a rudder – this allows them to stop in mid air and make very sudden changes of direction, They can easily be mistaken in flight for dragonflies, but tend to fly much closer to the ground. It is quite feasible that Lamproptera have evolved to become mimics of the dragonflies, and thereby avoid being attacked by them.

Males are found almost exclusively in the vicinity of running water, most commonly at waterfalls or fast-running mountain streams. They can often be seen filter-feeding – sucking up water to extract dissolved minerals, while almost continually spurting it out in a jet from the tip of the abdomen. While feeding the butterflies vibrate their wings rapidly, but the activity is interrupted with irregular momentary pauses when they are held motionless.

Both sexes can occasionally be found at rest on the foliage of bushes, with wings fully outspread.

Introduction

There are about 215 species of Papilio worldwide.

Papilio polytes is palatable to insectivorous birds and produces several different female forms which mimic unpalatable Atrophaneura swallowtails. These mimetic forms include romulus f. polytes which is a near perfect double of Atrophaneura hector, and romulus f. theseus which is a superb mimic of Atrophaneura aristolochiae. Birds are unable to distinguish between mimic and model, and having had the unpleasant experience of tasting an Atrophaneura will reject the near identical but perfectly edible polytes. For human observers distinguishing between the two genera is easy though because polytes has an all-black head and body, while in Atrophaneura species these are red.

Papilio polytes is found across most of tropical and temperate Asia from India and Sri Lanka to west China and the Philippines. It ranges south through Thailand and Malaysia to Sumatra and Borneo.

Habitats

This species is found in rainforest, semi-deciduous woodland, thorn scrub, beach hinterlands, parks and gardens. It can be found at altitudes between 0-1000m.

Lifecycle

The larval foodplants include Citrus, Clausena, Fortunella, Glycosmis, Zanthoxylum, Toddalia, Aegle, Murraya, Triphasia, Euodia, Atalantia and Poncirus ( Rutaceae ).

Adult behaviour

In the early morning the butterflies fly low over the ground, and settle to bask for long periods on low vegetation, with their wings outspread. Later in the day as temperatures rise they become very active. Both sexes will nectar at Lantana and a wide variety of other wild and cultivated flowers.