Introduction

The current classification of the genus Lycaena is unsatisfactory and in need of revision. The genus is loosely split into several unofficial groupings, which ultimately will be classified as sub-genera or new genera. Under existing classification there are about 70 Lycaena species, variously distributed across temperate regions of the world.

There were originally thought to be only 4 Lycaena species in New Zealand i.e. salustius, feredayi, boldenarum and rauparaha, but the former boldenarum subspecies tama and caerulea are now recognised as full species, as is edna which was formerly regarded as a subspecies of salustius.

Lycaena salustius is endemic to New Zealand.

Habitats

This species occurs in a wide range of habitats ranging from coastal sand dunes to montane tussock grassland at 2000m.

Lifecycle

The larval foodplants are Muehlenbeckia species ( Polygonaceae ).

Adult behaviour

The adults have a rapid erratic flight just above ground level.

Introduction

The current classification of the genus Lycaena is unsatisfactory and in need of revision. The genus is loosely split into several unofficial groupings, which ultimately will be classified as sub-genera or new genera. Under existing classification there are about 70 Lycaena species, variously distributed across temperate regions of the world.

There were originally thought to be only 4 Lycaena species in New Zealand i.e. salustius, feredayi, boldenarum and rauparaha, but the former boldenarum subspecies tama and caerulea are now recognised as full species, as is edna which was formerly regarded as a subspecies of salustius.

Lycaena rauparaha is endemic to New Zealand.

Habitats

This species is confined to lowland habitats around the western and northern coasts of North Island, and the northern coast of South Island.

Lifecycle

The usual larval foodplant is Muehlenbeckia complexa. The egg is laid singly on the underside of the leaves. The caterpillar is velvety green, and has the usual dorsal ridges and lateral lappets found in Lycaena larvae. It overwinters when small and resumes feeding in the spring. The pupa is greenish yellow with reddish brown wing cases. It is secured by the cremaster and a few loose strands of silk to a dead leaf on the ground.

Adult behaviour

The butterflies have a rapid jerky flight close to the ground.

Introduction

The current classification of the genus Lycaena is unsatisfactory and in need of revision. The genus is loosely split into several unofficial groupings, which ultimately will be classified as sub-genera or new genera. Under existing classification there are about 70 Lycaena species, variously distributed across temperate regions of the world.

There were originally thought to be only 4 Lycaena species in New Zealand i.e. salustius, feredayi, boldenarum and rauparaha, but the former boldenarum subspecies tama and caerulea are now recognised as full species, as is edna which was formerly regarded as a subspecies of salustius.

The underside hindwings of boldenarum vary in markings, Examples from some sites are pale and faintly marked. Those from other sites may be boldly patterned with blackish marbling on a grey ground colour. It is not clear at this time if these forms are merely habitat-related morphs or if they represent different subspecies or species.

Lycaena boldenarum is endemic to New Zealand and is found on both islands.

Habitats

This species is found in a wide variety of habitats including grassland, shingle, sand dunes.

Lifecycle

The usual larval foodplant is Muehlenbeckia axillaris but Rumex flexousus is also recorded, and it is possible that other Muehlenbeckia species are also used. The egg is laid singly on a stem or on the underside of leaves. The larva is variable in colour so may be olive-green, yellowish-green, pink or reddish-brown, but always has a diamond-shaped mark on the prothorax. It overwinters when half grown and resumes feeding in the spring. When not feeding it hides beneath small stones. It is often found in association with Chelaner ants but there is no proven symbiotic link or dependency. The pupa can be either light brown or reddish, but the abdomen of both forms is speckled with black. It is secured by the cremaster and a few loose strands of silk to a dead leaf on the ground.

Adult behaviour

Males have a rapid erratic flight but females are more fluttery. Both sexes stay close to the ground, and are only active in bright sunny conditions.

Introduction

There are 7 known Theclinesthes species, of which 6 are endemic to Australia. The other species – eremicola, is known only from the Indonesian islands of Alor and Flores, east of the Wallace Line. It seems likely however that other species may still remain undiscovered e.g. on New Guinea.

Theclinesthes serpentata is found in New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania.

Habitats

To be completed.

Lifecycle

The pale green lozenge-shaped eggs are laid singly on flower-buds or leaves of the foodplant. The larvae when fully grown are plump and pale green, and covered in tiny white warts. They feed on Atriplex, Rhagodia, Chenopodium, Einadia ( Chenopodiaceae ) and Atalaya ( Sapindaceae ). Larvae are usually attended by ants of the genera Iridomyrmex, Myrmecia, Camponotus or Monomorium. The pupa is pale brown mottled with darker flecks. It is usually attached to the underside of a leaf of the foodplant, and secured with a silk girdle.

Adult behaviour

Both sexes are fond of nectaring at Asteraceae and other low growing flowers.

Introduction

The genus Lucia comprises of 10 known species, distributed variously throughout Indonesia, Papua and minor islands east of the Wallace Line. Only one species occurs in Australia.

Lucia limbaria is endemic to Australia and occurs in Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria.

Habitats

This species inhabits open grassy and stony areas at elevations between about 50-500m.

Lifecycle

The eggs are pale green and laid in clusters of between 10-20 on the upper surface of a leaf of the foodplant. The larvae eat various Oxalis species including corniculatea ( Oxalidaceae ). When fully grown they are pale green with numerous thin dark lateral and dorsal stripes, and a black plate on the thorax and anal segment. They usually have Iridomyrmex ants in attendance, and rest inside ant chambers when not feeding. This way they are protected from predators and parasitoids, and in return for the protection gained the ants milk them for a sweet fluid secreted from a Newcomer’s gland on the caterpillar’s back. Pupation takes place within the ant nest.

Adult behaviour

Both sexes nectar at low growing Asteraceae and other flowers.

Introduction

The genus Jalmenus comprises of 11 species, all of which are endemic to Australia. The uppersides of most species are metallic silvery-blue, with broad suffused blackish margins, and a pair of small orange or red patches near the tail of the hindwing. In one species eichorni the blue colouration is replaced by metallic green. The undersides vary, some like evagoras having black markings while in others such as lithochroa and icilius the markings are very pale and obscure.

Jalmenus evagoras is found in southern Queensland, Canberra, New South Wales and Victoria.

Habitats

This species inhabits open Acacia scrub and semi-desert habitats.

Lifecycle

The eggs are white or pale yellow and are laid in neat rows on stems of Acacia bushes. Immediately after hatching the caterpillars wander until they find an ant trail. They follow this until they locate a cluster of older caterpillars, which always have Iridomyrmex ants in attendance. Ants are beneficial to the larvae because they drive away predatory insects and parasitoid wasps that might otherwise attack them. Iridomyrmex ants have been observed actively defending Jalmenus caterpillars from attack by predators including spiders, mantises, Myrmecia jumper ants and Polistes wasps.

The larvae have a series of spiky dorsal tubercles, and are dark green with an orange dorsal stripe and marbled with lighter tones. They live within a communal web on a small Acacia bush, emerging to feed periodically.

The pupae are black with orange bands between the segments, and are formed in clusters attached to twigs. The pupae are also attended by Iridomyrmex ants. Experiments have shown that in cases where ants have been denied access to the pupae the latter have suffered up to 95% parasitism by the Chalcid wasp Brachymeria reginia. Conversely, pupae attended by the ants experienced zero parasitism.

Larvae and pupae have been shown able to communicate with ants using visual, audio and chemical signals which are used to appease the ants, which would otherwise attack and kill them.

Adult behaviour

Males aggregate in clusters of up to 20 individuals around the pupae of females on Acacia bushes. Both sexes nectar at Asteraceae and various flowering bushes and shrubs.

Introduction

There are 12 species in the genus Ravindra, 11 of which occur on Borneo, and 10 in West Malaysia.

“The genus is remarkable for the occurrence of pairs of species of which one is comparatively large and has secondary sexual characters in the male, and the lacks secondary sexual characters and, in both sexes resembles a dwarf female of the larger species.” ( Cowan, 1974 ).

The various species all have long tails, and on the underside hindwings feature a prominent pattern of black or brown markings on a white background. The underside forewings are some shade of brown or orange, depending on the species. On the upperside the males of most species are dark brown but this colour is almost obscured by extensive metallic blue or purple scales. The females lack the metallic sheen and are very dull by comparison, although some such as theda and niasica have patches of orange on the forewings. Most species feature a large patch of white on the outer area of the upperside hindwings.

Drupadia ravindra is the commonest and the most beautiful of the genus. It produces several very attractive subspecies such as boisduvalii from Thailand, and caesarea from Nias – the males of both of these have bright red patches on the forewings, and hindwings covered in iridescent scales that change hue from turquoise to sky blue depending on lighting conditions and angle of view.

The Common Posy is found on mainland Asia from Myanmar to West Malaysia and Vietnam. It also occurs on most islands in Indo-China including the Philippines, Palawan, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Bali and Nias, but is not found east of the Wallace Line ( an imaginary line described by the great explorer and naturalist Alfred Russell Wallace, which separates the zoological regions of Asia from those of Australia and Papua New Guinea ).

Habitats

This species, like other members of the genus, is found in primary and secondary rainforest at altitudes between sea level and about 600 metres.

Lifecycle

According to Corbet & Pendlebury the butterfly has been bred in Malaysia on Albizia falcata and Derris scandens. Larvae have also been found on other Fabaceae including Saraca thaipingensis, and are attended by ants of the genus Pheidole.

When fully grown the larva is a very pale olive colour, and has a reddish brown dorsal stripe which widens considerably along the middle segments, forming a diamond shaped saddle.

Adult behaviour

The butterflies commonly settle on tree foliage at a height of 2-3 metres. When at rest they usually hold their wings erect or slightly apart, and oscillate their hindwings, causing the tails to “wriggle”, which draws the attention of predators to the tail of the butterfly rather than it’s head, diverting the attack and often allowing the butterfly to escape with nothing worse than a torn hindwing.

Introduction

The Theclinae (Hairstreaks) are found worldwide, with about 270 representatives in Sundaland, the region that encompasses the Malay peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Palawan.

There are several genera which contain species with long tails, orange undersides, and black and white markings in the distal area, including Thamala, Eooxylides, Drupadia, Cheritra, Neocheritra, Thrix, and Zeltus.

Eooxylides tharis is certainly one of the most beautiful species from the genera listed above. It is recognized by its particularly brilliant orange underside coloration, very distinctive markings, and extraordinarily long and twisted tails. The upperside wings are blackish brown, with broken white markings in the distal area of the hindwings.

There are arguably 11 species of Eooxylides, although many workers regard the majority of these as being subspecies of tharis, occurring variously in Thailand, West Malaysia, Singapore, Borneo, Sumatra, Palawan, Java, and some of the smaller islands of Indo-China. Most authorities, however, agree that etias from Borneo, and meduana from the Philippines are distinct species.

Habitats

This species is found in wet rainforest areas at elevations between sea level and about 1000m.

Lifecycle

In August 2004 at Tapah Hills in Malaysia, I observed a female ovipositing on a woody sprig at the side of a forest road. The eggs were white and were laid in loose clusters of about 10-15, wrapped around the tip of the sprig, about 0.5m above ground level. I was unable to determine the species of plant. The only recorded larval foodplant is Smilax bracteata, a common forest vine.

The larva is green, suffused on the thorax and at the tail end with red. It is smooth-skinned, ovoid, flattened, and has what could be described as a lip or rib around its lower half, enabling it to squat limpet-like to its substrate, with its legs completely hidden. This strongly suggests that it needs to protect its soft undersurface from the ants which attend it. (Seufert & Fiedler found that about 50% of tharis larvae were attended by ants). The green pupa has the wing cases suffused with white at their base, and with reddish around the wing edges.

Adult behaviour

The butterfly tends to skip purposefully from perch to perch, searching for food sources which include bird droppings and aphid secretions. Once settled they are usually reluctant to move, and oblivious to human disturbance, particularly if they are feeding.

Males are commonly found in small groups of about 3 or 4 on the stems of bushes in shady areas of disturbed forest, having been attracted by the sweet “honey-dew” secretions produced by aphids and membracids. At such sites there are invariably at least a dozen ants sharing their meal, but the ants do not molest the butterflies, which are possibly protected by their chemical properties. When feeding they habitually walk around the stems, each butterfly slowly rotating on its own axis as it avidly probes the sugary secretions with its proboscis. On more than one occasion, I’ve found males head-locked together, apparently the result of an eagerness to feed, rather than aggression.

Females are usually encountered singly when searching for oviposition sites.

Introduction

The genus Spindasis is regarded by some authors as a subgenus of Cigaritis. Thus defined there are over 70 known species, found variously across Africa, the Middle East, and the Oriental region. The ‘true’ Spindasis species, i.e. those occurring in the Oriental region, amount to 28 species. There are 5 species in peninsular Malaysia – syama, lohita, seliga, kutu, and vixinga. All of these except kutu also occur on Borneo.

The genus is instantly recognizable from the distinctive pattern of red-bordered silvery stripes on the underside. The pattern functions to divert the eyes of predators away from the butterfly’s head, and towards the tornus. The bright orange tornal spot, and the white-tipped ‘false antennae’ tails, which are wiggled while the butterfly rests, add further to the back-to-front illusion. A bird or reptile intending to attack a butterfly will always try to anticipate the direction in which it will try to escape. Accordingly, they aim their attack just ahead of what they believe to be the head of the insect, but the back-to-front illusion fools them into aiming at the tail, and the butterfly is able to make its escape in the opposite direction.

Habitats

Spindasis seliga is a forest insect, usually seen in light gaps or along wide trails.

Lifecycle

The caterpillar is dark green, mottled with paler markings. It feeds on the foliage of the shrubs Dioscorea, Xylia, and Psidium and is attended by ants, which ‘milk’ it to obtain sugary secretions. It lives, and eventually pupates, within a shelter constructed from fragments of bark or stem.

Adult behaviour

Both sexes are usually encountered singly or occasionally in two’s and three’s, and are typically seen when resting on the foliage of trees or shrubs at a height of about 2-3m above the ground. They have a rapid fluttery flight which is difficult to follow with the eye.

Males sometimes visit sandbanks, where they perch on rocks or stones. Upon landing they wiggle the ‘false antennae’ tails for a moment, but once they have assessed that they are in no immediate danger from predators, they stop this activity and remain perfectly still.

Introduction

The genus Loxura comprises of 2 very similar species atymnus and cassiopeia, both restricted to the Oriental region.

On the upperside of the wings both species are bright non-metallic orange, with the apical area dark brown or black. In cassiopeia the black also extends along the costa as a broad band. Both species could be confused with Yasoda pita, but on the upperside the latter has dark brown borders on both wings, and a narrow brown diagonal streak across the hindwings.

Loxura cassiopeia is found in Thailand, peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah and the Philippines.

Habitats

This species is found in primary and secondary forest at altitudes between about 100-800 metres.

Lifecycle

I have no data regarding the early stages of cassiopeia, but these are likely to be extremely similar to those of atymnus which are given below :

The egg is dome-shaped with numerous tiny shallow depressions, and purplish-white in colour. It is laid singly at the base of young shoots of Dioscorea ( Dioscoreaceae ), Smilax ( Smilacaceae ) and Solanum ( Solanaceae ). The slug-shaped larva is shiny olive green with whitish striations along the length of the back. There is a reddish suffusion along the lower abdomen and along the middle of the back. It feeds diurnally on the fleshy shoots but is extremely well camouflaged. Like almost all Lycaenidae larvae it possesses a Newcomer’s gland on it’s back, which secretes a sugary substance which is “milked” by ants. The ants by their presence offer in return a degree of protection against predators and parasitoids. The chrysalis is attached vertically to a stem of the foodplant and bears a remarkable resemblance to a partly opened leaf bud. The abdomen is bright leaf-green, with a broad band of marbled brown along the back, either side of the thorax, and around the edges of the wing cases.

Adult behaviour

The butterfly is scarce in Malaysia and infrequently observed. I have only seen it at Ulu Gerok, where I watched a male imbibing moisture from the surface of a rock at the edge of a small fast-running stream.