Introduction

The genus Pirdana is endemic to the Oriental region and comprises of 4 known species, albicornis, hyela, distanti and fusca, the last of these being discovered as recently as 1983.

All Pirdana species have dark uppersides with a metallic bluish-green sheen, and golden-yellow scales around the tornus on the hindwings. Additionally they all have deep ruby eyes.

The commonest and most widespread species is hyela which is found from Myanmar to Sulawesi. P. albicornis is endemic to Borneo, and fusca is endemic to Samar in the Philippines.

Pirdana distanti is found in West Malaysia, Sumatra and Borneo.

Habitats

This is a very rare species which is confined to primary rainforest at altitudes between about 100-300 metres. The individual depicted above was photographed in dark swampy forest near Kuala Tahan in Taman Negara national park.

Lifecycle

The only details I have of the early stages are that the larva is “green with black markings” and feeds on Dracaena and Cordyline ( Agavaceae ).

Adult behaviour

The butterflies are probably mainly crepuscular in habit. The butterfly depicted was disturbed from rest in the late afternoon. It had a rapid whirring flight and was very alert and difficult to approach – while attempting to follow it I managed to trip over a tree root, slide down a slope into a muddy pool, and gather a few cuts and bruises, losing sight of the butterfly on several occasions !

Introduction

The subfamily Trapezitinae comprises of about 60-70 smallish, robust, heavy-bodied skippers, all of which are confined to the Australian region (including New Guinea). There are 18 genera, of which Trapezites is the largest, with between 15-18 species depending on taxonomic interpretation. Unlike Hesperiinae, males of Trapezitinae do not possess an androconial sex-brand.

Each genus of the Trapezitinae has larvae that specialize in feeding on particular plant genera, e.g. Trapezites all feed on spike rush Lomandra.

Trapezites praxedes is found in southern Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria.

Habitats

This species is found in rough scrubby grassland in the temperate hills of eastern Australia, from Queensland to Victoria.

Lifecycle

The dome-shaped egg is white with and faintly ribbed. It is laid singly on leaves of the foodplants which include Lomandra confertifolia and related species of Laxmanniaceae. The larva is reddish or greenish brown with a faint dark dorsal line. It has a brown head with white dots. It lives within a tubular shelter constructed from the leaves, and feeds nocturnally. The pupa is rusty brown mottled with black, and is formed within the leaf shelter.

Adult behaviour

In hot sunny conditions the butterflies usually hold their wings erect, or slightly apart, when at rest.

When conditions are cooler they sometimes adopt the traditional Hesperiine posture, with forewings raised at 45, and hindwings held outspread. It is more common however for both the fore and hindwings to be held flat, with the hindwings obscured, as shown in the photo at the top of this page.

Males are highly territorial, defending their patches of ground vigorously. If one male intrudes into the territory of another, the pair spiral skywards to a height of several metres, revolving around each other at high speed, until the intruding male relinquishes claim to the territory and flies away. The winning male then returns to his original perching place. The butterflies make a loud humming or whirring noise as they fly.

Introduction

The subfamily Trapezitinae comprises of about 60-70 smallish, robust, heavy-bodied skippers, all of which are confined to the Australian region (including New Guinea). There are 18 genera, of which Trapezites is the largest, with between 15-18 species depending on taxonomic interpretation. Unlike Hesperiinae, males of Trapezitinae do not possess an androconial sex-brand.

Each genus of the Trapezitinae has larvae that specialize in feeding on particular plant genera, e.g. Trapezites all feed on spike rush Lomandra.

Trapezites eliena is found in southern Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia.

Habitats

This species is found in rough scrubby grassland in the temperate hills of eastern Australia.

Lifecycle

The dome-shaped egg is laid singly on leaves of the foodplants which include Lomandra confertifolia and related species of Laxmanniaceae. The larva is greenish or pinkish brown, peppered with tiny dark spots, and has a series of faint dorsal and lateral stripes. It has a large dark brown head. It lives within a tubular shelter constructed from the leaves, and feeds nocturnally. The pupa is pale brown, and is formed within the leaf shelter.

Adult behaviour

In hot sunny conditions the butterflies usually hold their wings erect, or slightly apart, when at rest.

When conditions are cooler they sometimes adopt the traditional Hesperiine posture, with forewings raised at 45°, and hindwings held outspread. It is more common however for both the fore and hindwings to be held flat, with the hindwings obscured, as shown in the photo at the top of this page.

Males are highly territorial, defending their patches of ground vigorously. If one male intrudes into the territory of another, the pair spiral skywards to a height of several metres, revolving around each other at high speed, until the intruding male relinquishes claim to the territory and flies away. The winning male then returns to his original perching place. The butterflies make a loud humming or whirring noise as they fly.

Introduction

Butterflies in the genus Celaenorrhinus are known as ‘flats’ due to their habit of resting with their wings outspread and flattened against a leaf or other substrate. Many of the species have a pattern of hyaline ‘windows’ in the forewings, and some such as the beautiful African species galenus are marked with bands or blotches of almost luminous golden-orange.

The genus is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions of the world, with 24 species found in the neotropics including 5 which reach as far north as Mexico; 45 species in Africa, and 51 species in the Oriental region including at least 22 found in India.

Celaenorrhinus leucocera is a localised but reasonably common species which is found from Assam and Myanmar to Thailand and peninsular Malaysia.

Habitats

This butterfly is found in open areas within subtropical humid forests at altitudes between about 400-1800m.

Lifecycle

I have no data relating to leucocera but the following is applicable to the genus Celaenorrhinus in general:

The eggs are typically large, dome-shaped, greenish in colour, and laid singly on the underside of leaves of trees and shrubs in the family Acanthaceae, including Asystasia, Ecbolium, Eranthemum, Nilgirianthus, Carvia and Thelepapale.

After hatching the larva eats its eggshell and then constructs a cell made from folding over a piece of leaf and fastening it with silk. After each moult it constructs a new cell, and when larger it uses a pair of leaves sealed together with numerous silk strands. It lives and feeds within these cells for its entire life. If the leaf cell is opened the larva defends itself by arching its front quarters over its back and splaying its legs, thus creating the illusion that it is not a harmless larva but an aggressive ant. When fully grown a Celaenorrhinus larva is typically translucent dark green, covered in very short whitish hairs, and with a large dark coloured head.

Pupation takes place in a newly formed cell constructed from living foliage or dead leaf litter. The pupae are typically cylindrical, widest at the thorax, tapering towards the head and gently towards the rear.

Adult behaviour

The adults have an extremely rapid flight, twisting and turning evasively before eventually settling under the leaves of ferns and other vegetation. They prefer to fly in hot sunny conditions, but in cool conditions are still remarkably alert and capable of rapid manoeuvres. In hazy weather they often bask on rocks or boulders in the vicinity of rivers.

Introduction

The genus Notocrypta comprises of about 15 species variously distributed from India and Sri Lanka to China, Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea and northern Australia. All are medium sized, fast flying butterflies with dark brown wings marked with whitish diagonal bands on the forewings.

Notocrypta feisthamelii is found in north-east India, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo and Sulawesi.

Habitats

This species is found in open forested areas at elevations between about 400-1200m.

Lifecycle

The larval foodplants include Costus ( Costaceae ), Maranta ( Marantaceae ), Musa ( Musaceae ), Amomum, Curcuma, Elettaria, Hedychium and Zingiber ( Zingiberaceae ).

Adult behaviour

Both sexes are usually seen at rest on grasses or low herbage, with their wings held slightly apart.

Introduction

The Hesperiinae are a vast subfamily, characterised by their wide heads, large eyes, thick bodies, and their habit of basking with their forewings held at a 45° angle, and hindwings held horizontally. The caterpillars of all species feed on monocotyledons – grasses, palms, orchids etc.

There are about 400 Hesperiinae in the Oriental region. Among these there are dozens from the genera Salanoemia, Telicota, Taractrocera, Potanthus and Oriens which share a similar upperside pattern of broad yellowish-orange streaks on a dark brown ground colour. Distinguishing these genera, and the numerous species within them, relies on close examination of the configuration of the markings on both wing surfaces, and reference to text keys and diagrams.

The genus Potanthus comprises of about 40 species, many of which are so similar that identification is only possible after dissecting and microscopically examining the genitalia.

Potanthus confucius is a common species which is found in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, China and Taiwan.

Habitats

This species is found in disturbed grassy habitats at altitudes between sea level and about 400m.

Lifecycle

The larva feeds on bamboo Bambusa ( Poaceae ), and lives within a shelter constructed by folding a leaf of the foodplant into a tube, which is fastened with a few strands of silk. The pupa is formed within the larval shelter.

Adult behaviour

Potanthus confucius is an active sun-loving little butterfly which darts from flower to flower to seek nectar. It normally basks in the characteristic Hesperiine posture, with the forewings held at 45° and the hindwings in a horizontal plane.

Introduction

The Hesperiinae are a vast subfamily, characterised by their wide heads, large eyes, thick bodies, and their habit of basking with their forewings held at a 45° angle, and hindwings held horizontally. The caterpillars of all species feed on monocotyledons – grasses, palms, orchids etc.

There are about 400 Hesperiinae in the Oriental region. Among these there are dozens from the genera Salanoemia, Telicota, Taractrocera, Potanthus and Oriens which share a similar upperside pattern of broad yellowish-orange streaks on a dark brown ground colour. Distinguishing these genera, and the numerous species within them, relies on close examination of the configuration of the markings on both wing surfaces, and reference to text keys and diagrams.

The genus Potanthus comprises of about 40 species, many of which are so similar that identification is only possible after dissecting and microscopically examining the genitalia.

Potanthus omaha is a common species which is found in India, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi and Java.

Habitats

This species is found in disturbed grassy habitats at altitudes between sea level and about 400m.

Lifecycle

The larva is pale translucent green, with a suffused dark green dorsal line, and a dark brown head. It feeds on bamboo Bambusa ( Poaceae ), and lives within a shelter constructed by folding a leaf of the foodplant into a tube, which is fastened with a few strands of silk. The chrysalis is formed within the larval shelter.

Adult behaviour

Potanthus omaha is an active sun-loving little butterfly which darts from flower to flower to seek nectar. It normally basks in the characteristic Hesperiine posture, with the forewings held at 45° and the hindwings in a horizontal plane.

Introduction

The Hesperiinae are a vast subfamily, characterised by their wide heads, large eyes, thick bodies, and their habit of basking with their forewings held at a 45° angle, and hindwings held horizontally. There are about 400 Hesperiinae in the Oriental region.

The genus Scobura comprises of about 10 species, distributed variously across the Oriental region.

Scobura isota is found in north-east India, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, peninsular Malaysia and Vietnam.

Habitats

This species is found in sunny glades and clearings in rainforest and deciduous forest at elevations between about 100-800m.

Lifecycle

To be completed.

Adult behaviour

Both sexes can be seen darting about in the sunshine in grassy habitats within forest, often settling on bushes or low herbage to rest. When at rest they usually keep their wings held erect.

Introduction

There are between 17-20 Tagiades species, of which one is pan-African and two are endemic to Madagascar. The remainder are Oriental in distribution, although 2 species japetus and nestus reach Australia. The butterflies habitually rest beneath leaves with their wings fully outspread. All species except japetus have white borders on the hindwings, hence the popular name Snow Flats.

There are 6 species which can be found on the Indian subcontinent – gana, japetus, litigiosa, parra, menaka and toba.

Tagiades japetus is found in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, south China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, New Guinea and Australia.

Habitats

This species is found in open secondary vegetation at elevations up to about 1200m.

Lifecycle

The larval foodplant is Dioscorea ( Dioscoreaceae ).

Adult behaviour

Males spend most of their time perched under the leaves of trees and bushes, periodically darting rapidly out to intercept passing butterflies in anticipation of finding a receptive female. If disturbed from rest the butterflies circle widely 2 or 3 times before returning to their original perch or another nearby leaf. Both sexes frequently nectar at the flowers of Stachytarpheta.

Introduction

Iambrix salsala is one of only 2 members of the genus, and is found in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, south China, Hong Kong, West Malaysia, Singapore, Sumatra, Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Java.

Habitats

This species is commonly found in open forested areas, along roadsides, and in village gardens at elevations between sea level and about 600 metres.

Lifecycle

The eggs are dome-shaped and pink in colour, heavily dappled with reddish brown. They are laid singly on the upper surface of leaves of the foodplants which include bristlegrass Setaria barbata, cow grass Axonopus, and bamboo Bambusa. They have also been reportedly found on Mimosa but this record must be regarded as highly dubious as this is a legume ( Fabaceae ), and caterpillars of Hesperiinae always feed on monocotyledons – grasses, palms, bamboos, orchids, irises etc.

Immediately after hatching the larva is bright orange with a black head, but it soon changes to a shiny translucent yellowish-green colour. In later instars it is pale green, peppered with dark green, and has a pair of dark green lines along its back. The thoracic segments are reduced in diameter, giving the impression or a narrow “neck”. The head is light brown with broad chestnut brown stripes on the cheeks.

Throughout its life the larva lives solitarily within a shelter constructed from a grass blade that is rolled into a tube and fastened with strands of silk. It rests within the tube by day, only venturing out at night to feed, or when it needs to construct a new shelter.

The chrysalis is also formed within a grass tube, and is straw coloured, with pink eyes. The tip of the proboscis projects beyond the wing cases.

Adult behaviour

Both sexes visit flowers for nectar, and usually hold their wings slightly apart while feeding. They can also commonly be seen at rest on grasses or low herbage, with their wings held erect. In hazy conditions when temperatures are lower they bask in the characteristic Hesperiine posture, with the forewings held at 45 and the hindwings held horizontally.